The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians/VIII. Al Idrísí

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The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians

Sir H. M. Elliot, Edited by John Dowson, 1867, Volume I

Early Arab Geographers On History Of India

VIII. NUZHATU-L MUSHTAK OF AL IDRÍSÍ.


Introduction to Al Idrisi

ABÚ 'ABDU-LLAH MUHAMMAD was born at Ceuta, in Morocco, towards the end of the 11th century. He was member of a family which descended from an ancestor named Idrís, and so came to be known by the name of Al Idrísí. This family furnished a line of princes for Morocco in the 9th and 10th centuries, and the branch from which Idrísí sprung ruled over the city of Malaga. Idrísí travelled in Europe, and eventually settled in Sicily at the court of Roger II. It was at the instance of this prince that he wrote his book on geography.

Source: He cites in his preface the various authors whose works he had employed in the compilation of the book. Further information was derived from travellers, whose verbal statements he compared and tested; and M. Reinaud quotes the Biographical Dictionary of Khalílu-s Safadí to the effect that men of intelligence were specially commissioned to travel and collect information for his use. The full title of the work is, Nuzhatu-l Mushták fi Ikhtiráku-l Áfák, "The Delight of those who seek to wander through the regions of the world."

A full translation of the whole work into French was published at Paris in 1836 and 1840 by M. Jaubert, and from this the following Extracts have been done into English. Idrísí's work met with very early attention. An abridgment of the text was published at Rome in 1592, and a Latin translation was printed at Paris in 1619, entitled "Geographia Nubiensis, id est accuratissima totius orbis in septem climata divisi descriptio


[p.75]: continens, prœsertim exactam universœ Asiœ et Africœ, in Latinum versa a Gabriele Sionita et Joanne Hesronita." Hart-mann in 1796 published at Gottingen, from the abridgement, "Edrisii descriptio Africœ." The description of Spain was translated into Spanish by Conde in 1799, and the portions relating to Africa and Spain have just been published with a translation by M.M. Dozy and de Goeje. Zenker, in his Bibliotheca Orientalis, mentions translations of other detached portions.

M. Reinaud, in his Introduction to Aboulfeda, has remarked that in M. Jaubert's translation, "Beaucoup de noms de lieux sont altérés," and it is true that there are some variants, such as Túbarán for Túrán, and Bána for Tánna; but the old Latin translation presented generally the same differences; the variants therefore seemed to exist in the text, and not to be attributable to the translator. A cursory examination of the two MSS. in the Bodleian has confirmed this view, for Jaubert's translation was found to give a generally accurate reproduction of the names as they stand in these MSS. A careful comparison of the texts would, no doubt, lead to some corrections, and, indeed, a few will be noticed in the following pages; but the more important variants are fully supported by the Oxford MSS. The maps contained in Graves' MS. show some differences from the text; thus Túrán is found instead of Túbarán; but the maps are written in a more modern hand, quite different from the rest of the book. The text is continued on the backs of these maps in the ordinary hand, but it may nevertheless have been written long before the maps were filled in. At any rate the scribes were different men, and such differences as that noticed above leads to the conclusion that the maps were not derived from the text with which they are incorporated.

EXTRACTS.

The greatest king of India : Balhará

FIRST CLIMATE. Section X.- The greatest king of India is the Balhará, which signifies "king of kings." After him comes the


[p.76]: Makamkam, whose country is Sáj. Next the king of Sáfan or Tában, then the king of Jába, then the king of Juzr, and then the king of Kámrún, whose states touch China.

1The Indians are divided into seven castes.

  • The first is that of the Sákriya, These are the most noble; from among them kings are chosen, and from no others. All the other castes pay homage to them, but they render homage to no one.
  • Next come the Brahmans, who are the religious class. They dress in the skins of tigers and other animals. Sometimes one of them, taking a staff in his hand, will assemble a crowd around him, and will stand from morn till eve speaking to his auditors of the glory and power of God, and explaining to them the events which brought destruction upon the ancient people, that is, upon the Brahmans. They never drink wine nor fermented liquors. They worship idols (whom they consider to be) able to intercede with the Most High.
  • The third caste is that of the Kastariya, who may drink as much as three ratls2 of wine, but not more, lest they should lose their reason. This caste may marry Brahman women, but Brahmans cannot take their women to wife.
  • Next comes the Shardúya, who are labourers and agriculturists;
  • then the Basya, who are artizans and mechanics;
  • then the Sabdáliya (or Sandaliya), who are singers, and whose women are noted for their beauty; and,
  • lastly, the Zakya, who are jugglers, tumblers, and players of various instruments.

Among the principal nations of India there are forty-two sects. Some recognize the existence of a Creator, but not of prophets; while others deny the existence of both. Some acknowledge the intercessory powers of graven stones, and others worship holy stones, on which butter and oil is poured. Some pay adoration to fire, and cast themselves into the flames. Others adore the sun, and consider it the creator and director of the world. Some worship trees; others pay adoration to serpents, which they keep in stables, and feed as well as they can, deeming this to be a meritorious work. Lastly, there are some who give themselves no trouble about any kind of devotion, and deny everything.

The towns described

SECOND CLIMATE. Section VII.-The towns described in this


[p.77]: seventh section1 are Kia, Kír, Armáyíl, Kasr-band, Fírabúz, Khúr, Kambalí, Manhábarí,2 Debal, Nírún, Mansúra,3 Wándán, Asfaka, Darak, Másúrján, Fardán, Kírkáyán, Kadírá, Basmak, Túbarán (Túrán), Multán, Jandúr, Sandúr, Dúr, Atrí,4 Kálarí, Nírá, Mas-wám, Sharúsán,5 Bánía, Mámhal, Kambáya, Súbára, Sabdán, and Saimúr.6 In that part of the sea which is comprised in the present section, there are the isle of Sára, the two rocks of Kasair and 'Awair, that of Dardúr, the island of Debal, in which the town of Kaskihár, is situated; the isles of Aubkín, Mind, Kúlam-mali, and Sindán. All these countries are inhabited by people of different religions, customs, and manners. We will state all that we have ascertained for certain on this subject, confiding in Divine help.

Debal: The beginning of this section comprises, starting from the east, the shores of the Persian Gulf, and towards the south the town of Debal. This is a populous place, but its soil is not fertile, and it produces scarcely any trees except the date-palm. The highlands are arid and the plains sterile. Houses are built of clay and wood, but the place is inhabited only because it is a station for the vessels of Sind and other countries. Trade is carried on in a great variety of articles, and is conducted with much intelligence. Ships laden with the productions of 'Umán, and the vessels of China and India come to Debal. They bring stuffs and other goods from China, and the perfumes and aromatics of India. The inhabitants of Debal, who are generally rich, buy these goods in the bulk, and store them until the vessels are gone and they become scarce. Then they begin to sell, and go trading into the country, putting their money out on interest, or employing it as may seem best.

  • Going towards the west there are

[p.78]: six miles between the mouth of the great Mihrán and Debal.
  • From Debal to Nírún, on the west of the Mihrán, three days' journey. Nírún is half way between Debal and Mansúra, and people going from one town to the other here cross the river. Nírún is a town of little importance, but it is fortified, and its inhabitants are rich. Trees are rare. From hence to Mansúra rather more than three days.
  • Mansúra, the city last mentioned, is surrounded by a branch of the Mihrán, although it is at a distance from the river. It is on the west of the principal branch of the river which flows from its source to Kálarí, a town situated one days' journey from Mansúra. At Kálarí it divides-the principal branch runs towards Mansúra, the other flows northward as far as Sharúsán (Sadúsán), it then turns westwards and rejoins the chief stream, forming henceforward only one river. The junction takes place twelve miles below Mansúra. The Mihrán passes on to Nírún, and then flows into the sea. Mansúra occupies a space of a mile square. The climate is hot. The country produces dates and sugar-canes in abundance. There are hardly any other fruits, if we except one, a sort of fruit called laimún, as big as an apple and of a very sour taste, and another which resembles the peach both in shape and taste. Mansúra was built at the beginning of the reign of Al Mansúr, of the 'Abbáside family, This prince gave his name ("the victorious") to four different cities, as a good augury that they might stand for ever. The first was Baghdad in 'Irák; the second, Mansúra in Sind; the third, Al Masísa, on the Mediterranean; the fourth, that of Mesopotamia. That of which we are now speaking is great, populous, rich, and commercial. Its environs are fertile. The buildings are constructed of bricks, tiles, and plaster. It is a place of recreation and of pleasure. Trade flourishes. The bazars are filled with people, and well stocked with goods. The lower classes wear the Persian costume, but the princes wear tunics, and allow their hair to grow long like the princes of India. The money is silver and copper. The weight of the drachma (dínár) is five times that of the (ordinary) drachma. The Tátariya coins also are current here. Fish is plentiful, meat is cheap, and foreign and native fruits abound. The name of this city in Indian is Mírmán,

[p.79]: It is considered one of the dependencies of Sind, like Debal, Nírún, Bánía, Kálarí, Atri, Sharúsán, Jandaur, Manhábarí (Manjábarí), Basmak and Multán.
  • Bánía is a little town. The inhabitants are of mixed blood and are rich. Living here is cheap and agreeable.
  • From Bánía to Mansúra, three days,
  • to Mámhal six,
  • to Debal two.
  • From hence to Mámhal and Kambáya the country is nothing but a marine strand, without habitations and almost without water; consequently, it is impassable for travellers.
  • Mámhal is situated between Sind and India. Upon the confines of the desert just mentioned there dwells a hardy race called Mand (Med). They graze their flocks to within a short distance of Mámhal. These people are numerous. They have many horses and camels, and they extend their incursions as far as Dur (Alor) upon the banks of the Mihrán, and sometimes they penetrate even as far as the frontiers of Makrán.
  • Dur (Alor) is situated on the banks of the Mihrán, which runs to the west of the town. It is a pleasant place, and worthy of comparison with Multán as regards size.
  • From thence to Basmak, three days;
  • to Atri (Annarí), four days; and
  • from thence to Kálarí, two days.
  • Kálarí, upon the west bank of the Mihrán, is a pretty town, well fortified, and is a busy trading place. Near it the Mihrán separates into two branches; the largest runs towards the west as far as the vicinity of Mansúria, which is on the west bank; the other runs towards the north-west, then to the north, and then towards the west. Both again unite at the distance of about twelve miles below Mansúria. Although this town [Kálarí] is some distance out of the regular route, still it is much frequented in consequence of the profitable trade carried on with the inhabitants.
  • From hence to Mansúra is a hard day's journey of forty miles.
  • From Kálarí to Sharúsán, three days.
  • Sharúsán (Sadúsán) is remarkable for its size and for the number of its fountains and canals, for the abundance of its productions and for its rich commerce. It is much resorted to.
  • From Sharúsán to Manhábarí (Manjábarí), a town placed in a hollow, well built, of a pleasant aspect, surrounded with gardens, fountains, and running

[p.80]: waters, the distance is three days.
  • Makrán is a vast country, but the greater part of it is desert and poor. The largest of its towns is Kírúsí, which is nearly as large as Multán. Palm-trees are plentiful there; the land is cultivated, and and a good deal of trade is carried on. On the west of it lies Tíz, a small sea-port much frequented by the vessels of Fárs, as well as by those which come from the country of 'Umán and the isle of Kísh, which is situated in the Persian Gulf at a long day's sail distance.
  • From Tíz to Kír (Kíz), five days.
  • From Kír to Fírabúz, two long days' journey.
  • Between Kír [Kíz] and Armaïl there are two districts which touch each other; one called Ráhún depends on Mansúria, and the other named Kalwán is a dependency of Makrán. These two districts are tolerably fertile, and they produce a few dates, but the inhabitants rely mainly on their flocks.
  • Whoever wishes to go from Fírabúz to Makrán must pass by Kír. *From thence to Armáïl, a dependency of Makrán, two days' journey.
  • Armáïl is nearly as large as Fírabúz. It is well peopled, and its environs are pleasant. The inhabitants are rich.
  • From Armáïl to Kanbalí, two days' journey. Kanbalí competes with Armáïl in respect of size, wealth, and population. It is about a mile and a half from the sea. Both these places are situated between Debal and Makrán.
  • Darak is a populous trading town, three days' journey from Fíra¬búz. South-west of Darak there is a high mountain, which is called the mountain of salt, because nearly all the water which runs from

[p.81]: it is saline. There are habitations here.
  • The inhabitants of Rásak are schismatics. Their territory is divided into two districts, one called Al Kharúj, the other Kír Káyán. The sugar-cane is much cultivated, and a considerable trade is carried on in a sweetmeat called fániz, which is made here. The cultivation of sugar and the manufacture of this sweetmeat are extensively pursued at Máskán and in the district of Kasrán. The people of Máskán, Jaurán, and Túbarán, are for the most part schismatics. The territory of Máskán joins that of Kirmán. The inhabitants have a great reputation for courage. They have date trees, camels, cereals, and the fruits of cold countries. The people of Makrán speak Persian and a dialect peculiar to the province. They wear the tunic, the gown with sleeves, the cloak, waistcloth, and the mantle embroidered with gold, like the inhabitants of 'Irák and Persia.
  • Túbaran [Túrán] is near Fahraj, which belongs to Kirmán. It is a well fortified town, and is situated on the banks of a river of the same name (Túbarán), which are cultivated and fertile.
  • From hence to Fardán, a commercial town, the environs of which are well populated, four days.
  • Kírkáyán lies to the west of Fardán, on the road to Túbarán. The country is well populated and is very fertile. The vine grows here and divers sorts of fruit trees, but palms are not to be found.
  • From Túbarán to Mustah,1 a town in the midst of the desert, where many camels and sheep are bred, three days.
  • From Túbarán to Multán, on the borders of Sind, ten days.

Multán

Multán is close upon India; some authors, indeed, place it in that country. It equals Mansúra in size, and is called "the house of gold."


[p.82]: There is an idol here, which is highly venerated by the Indians, who come on pilgrimages to visit it from the most distant parts of the country, and make offerings of valuables, ornaments, and immense quantities of perfumes. This idol is surrounded by its servants and slaves, who feed and dress upon the produce of these rich offerings. It is in the human form with four sides,1 and is sitting upon a seat made of bricks and plaster. It is entirely covered with a skin like red morocco, so that the eyes only are visible. Some maintain that the interior is made of wood, but others deny this. However it may be, the body is entirely covered. The eyes are formed of precious stones, and upon its head there is a golden crown set with jewels. It is, as we have said, square, and its arms, below the elbows, seem to be four in number. The temple of this idol is situated in the middle of Multán, in the most frequented bazar. It is a dome-shaped building. The upper part of the dome is gilded, and the dome and the gates are of great solidity. The columns are very lofty and the walls coloured. Around the dome are the dwellings of the attendants of the idol, and of those who live upon the produce of that worship of which it is the object. There is no idol in India or in Sind which is more highly venerated. The people make it the object of a pious pilgrimage, and to obey it is a law. So far is this carried, that, when neighbouring princes make war against the country of Multán, either for the purpose of plunder or for carrying off the idol, the priests have only to meet, threaten the aggressors with its anger and predict their destruction, and the assailants at once renounce their design. Without this fear the town of Multán would be destroyed. It is not surprising, then, that the inhabitants adore the idol, exalt its power, and maintain that its presence secures divine protection. Being ignorant of the name of the man who set it up, they content themselves with saying that it is a wonder. Multán is a large city commanded by a citadel which has four gates and is surrounded by a moat. Provisions are abundant, and the taxes are light, so that the people are in easy circumstances. It bears the name of "the house of gold Farkh," because Muhammad bin Yúsuf, brother of Hajjáj, found forty bahárs of gold


[p.83]: (a bahár weighs 333 minas1) concealed there in a house. Farkh and Bahár have the same signification. The environs of this city are watered by a little river which falls into the Mihrán of Sind.

At one mile from Multán is Jandúr [Jand-rúd]-a collection of forts strongly built, very high, and well supplied with fresh water. The governor passes the spring time and his holidays here. Ibn Haukal states that in his time the governor used to go every Friday from these castles to Multán mounted upon an elephant, according to an ancient usage. The greater part of the population is Musul-mán, so also is the judicial authority and the civil administration.

Sandúr is situated three days' journey south of Multán. It is famous for its trade, wealth, sumptuous apparel, and the abundance which prevails on the tables of the inhabitants. It is considered to form part of India, and is situated on the banks of a river which falls into the Mihrán above Samand.

Going from Multán towards the north there is a desert which extends as far as the eastern boundary of Túbarán.

From Multán to the vicinity of Mansúra the country is occupied by a warlike race, called Nadha. It consists of a number of tribes scattered about between Túbarán Makrán, Multán, and Mansúra, like the Berber nomads. The Nadhas have peculiar dwellings, and marshes in which they take refuge, on the west of the Mihrán. They possess excellent camels, and, particularly, a sort which they breed, called Karah. This is held in high esteem in Khúrasán and the rest of Persia. It resembles the camel of Balkh and the female camel of Samar-kand, for it is of good temper and has two humps; not like the camels of our countries, which have only one.

  • From Mansúra to the confines of Nadha six days.
  • From the confines of Nadha to the city of Kír [Kíz] about ten days.
  • From Nadha to Tíz, at the extremity of Makrán, sixteen days. The town which the Nadhas most frequent for buying, selling, and other matters, is Kandáïl. Kír Káyán is a district known by the name of Aïl,2 inhabited by Musulmans and other people dependant on the Nadhas of whom

[p.84]: we have just spoken. The country produces corn, raisins, fruits, camels, oxen, and sheep. It bears the name of Aïl, because a man of that name conquered it (in ancient times), and laid the foundation of its prosperity.
  • Masúrján is a well-peopled commercial town, surrounded with villages, and built upon the banks of the river of Túbarán, from which town it is forty-two miles distant.
  • From Masúrján to Darak-yámúna, 141 miles is the computed distance.
  • From Darak-yámúna to Fírabúz or Fírabús, 175 miles.
  • Mámhal is by some numbered among the cities of India; by others among those of Sind. It is situated at the extremity of the desert which stretches between Kambáya, Debal, and Bánía. It is a town of moderate importance on the route of travellers passing from Sind to India. But little trade is carried on here. The environs are peopled, and produce small quantities of fruit; but there are numerous flocks.
  • Kambáya stands three miles from the sea, and is very pretty. It is well known as a naval station. Merchandise from every country is found here, and is sent on from hence to other countries. It is placed at the extremity of a bay, where vessels can enter and cast anchor. It is well supplied with water, and there is a fine fortress erected by the government of India to prevent the inroads of the inhabitants

[p.85]: of the island of Kísh.
  • Kambáya is fertile in wheat and rice. Its mountains produce the Indian kaná. The inhabitants are idolaters (Buddhists).
  • From hence to the island of Mand, the inhabitants of which are thieves, the passage is six miles.
  • To Kúlí on the shore, also six miles; and
  • Súbára is situated one-and-a-half mile from the sea. It is a populous, busy town, and is considered one of the entrepôts of India. They fish for pearls here. It is in the vicinity of Bára, a small island, on which some cocoa-nut trees and the costus grow.
  • Sindán is a mile-and-a-half from the sea. It is populous, and the people are noted for their industry and intelligence. They are rich and of a warlike temper. The town is large, and has an extensive commerce both in exports and imports. East of Sindán there is an island bearing the same name and dependent on India. It is large and well cultivated, and the cocoa-nut palm, kaná, and rattan grow there.
  • Saimúr, five days from Sindán, is a large well-built town. Cocoanut trees grow here in abundance; henna also grows here, and the mountains produce many aromatic plants, which are exported.
  • Five miles by sea (from Kúlam Malí) lies the island of Malí, which is large and pretty. It is an elevated plateau, but not very hilly, and is covered with vegetation. The pepper vine grows in this island, as in Kandarína and Jirbatan, but it is found nowhere else but in these three places. It is a shrub, having a trunk like that of the vine; the leaf is like the convolvulus, but longer; it bears grapes like those of the Shabúka, each bunch of which is sheltered by a leaf which curls over when the fruit is ripe. White pepper is what is gathered as it begins to ripen, or even before. Ibn Khurdádba states that the leaves curl over the bunches to protect them from the rain, and that they return to their natural position when the rain is over-a surprising fact!

Kambáya, Súbára, Sindán, and Saimúr form part of India. The last named belongs to a country whose king is called Balhárá: his kingdom is vast, well-peopled, commercial, and fertile. It pays


[p.86]: heavy taxes, so that the king is immensely rich. Many aromatics and perfumes are produced in this country.

Balhárá: The name (or rather the title) of Balhárá means king of kings. It is hereditary here as in other parts of the country, where, when a king ascends a throne he takes the name of his predecessor and transmits it to his heir. This is a regular custom from which these people never depart. There is the same rule with the kings of Nubia, Zanj, Ghána, Persia, and in the Roman empire, in respect of the hereditary descent of names. The work of 'Ubaidu-llah Ibn Khurdádba contains a passage concerning this which is worth quotation:-"Kings," he says, "generally bear hereditary titles,-thus those of China have been called Bághbúgh (or Bághbún) for centuries, and the title descends in regular order. Among the kings of India there are the Balhárá, Jába, Táfir, Hazr (Juzr) 'Ábat, Dumi (Rahmí) and Kámrún. These names are taken only by the prince who reigns over the province or country, no other has any right to assume them, but whoever reigns takes the name. Among the Turks, the Tibetans, and the Khazars, the king is called Khákán, but among the Khizlij he takes the title of Khai Khúya which is hereditary. In the Ránah the kings are called Fanjab. In the Roman empire they take the title of Cæsar, which descends upon all those who wield the supreme power. Among the Aghzaz they are called Shái Shá, or king of kings, a title hereditary like the rest. Finally, among the Persians they are called Kásra [Chosroes]. Among the people who dwell in the Súdán the names of the kings are derived from their countries,-thus the ruler of Ghána is called Ghána, the king of Kaugha is called Kaugha. But enough upon this subject."

Towns of India

Among the towns of India comprised in the present section are Khábírún and Asáwal, both of them populous, commercial, rich, industrious, and productive of useful articles. At the time we write, the Musulmans have made their way into the greater part of these countries and have conquered them. Please God we will hereafter describe those which are on their frontiers and some others.

EIGHTH SECTION.-The present section contains a description of part of the


[p.87]: Nahrwárá, Kandahár, Rúmala, Kalbata and Aghushta,
  • We shall describe all these countries without omitting anything remarkable or curious that they may afford.
  • Barúh (Barúch, Broach]) is a large handsome town, well-built of bricks and plaster. The inhabitants are rich and engaged in trade, and they freely enter upon speculations and distant expeditions. It is a port for the vessels coming from China, as it is also for those of Sind.
  • From hence to Saimúr is considered two days' journey, and
  • to Nahrwára eight days through a flat country where they travel in carriages on wheels. In all Nahrwára and its environs there is no other mode of travelling except in chariots drawn by oxen under the control of a driver. These carriages are fitted with harness and traces, and are used for the carriage of goods.
  • Between Barúh and Nahrwára there are two towns, one called Hanáwal (or Janáwal), the other Dúlaka. They are about equal in size, and are somewhat less than a day's journey distant from each other.
  • Dúlaka is on the banks of a river which flows into the sea, forming an estuary, on the west of which stands the town of Barúh, (the name of which is also pronounced Barús), Both these towns stand at the foot of a chain of mountains which lie to the north, and which are called Úndaran,1 they are of a white colour approaching to yellow. The kaná grows here as well as a few cocoa nut trees. In the vicinity of Hanáwal (or Janáwal) stands the town of Asáwal,2 which is very much like the other two both in size and in the condition of its population. A good trade is carried on in all three.
  • Nahrwára is governed by a great prince who bears the title of Balhará. He has troops and elephants; he worships the idol Buddha; wears a crown of gold upon his head, and dresses in rich stuffs. He rides a good deal on horseback, but especially once a week when he goes out attended only by women, one hundred in

1.Vindhya?
2. "Yessawal" is the old name of Ahmadabad. Bird's Guzerat,187

[p.88]: number, richly clad, wearing rings of gold and silver upon their feet and hands, and their hair in curls. They engage in various games and in sham fights, while their king marches at their head. The ministers and the commanders of the troops never accompany the king except when he marches against rebels, or to repulse encroachments made upon his territories by neighbouring kings. He has numerous elephants, and these constitute the chief strength of his army. His power is hereditary, so also is his title Balhará, which signifies king of kings. The town of Nahrwára is frequented by large numbers of Musulman traders who go there on business. They are honourably received by the king and his ministers, and find protection and safety.
  • The Indians are naturally inclined to justice, and never depart from it in their actions. Their good faith, honesty and fidelity to their engagements are well known, and they are so famous for these qualities that people flock to their country from every side; hence the country is flourishing and their condition prosperous. Among other characteristic marks of their love of truth and horror of vice. the following is related:-When a man has a right to demand anything of another, and he happens to meet him, he has only to draw a circular line upon the ground and to make his debtor enter it, which the latter never fails to do, and the debtor cannot leave this circle without satisfying his creditor, or obtaining the remission of the debt.
  • The inhabitants of Nahrwára live upon rice, peas, beans, haricots, lentils, másh, fish, and animals that have died a natural death, for they never kill winged or other animals. They have a great veneration for oxen, and by a privilege confined to the species, they inter them after death. When these animals are enfeebled by age, and are unable to work, they free them from all labour and provide them with food without exacting any return.

The people of India burn their dead and do not raise tombs for them. When the king dies they construct a vehicle of an appropriate size, and raised about two palms above the ground. On this they place the bier surmounted by the crown, and the corpse, clad in all its funeral ornaments, being laid upon the bier, it is dragged by slaves all round the city. The head is uncovered and the hair


[p.89]: drags upon the ground. This is done that every one may see (the corpse), and a herald goes before uttering, in the Indian language, words of which the following is the sense,-"People! behold your king, so and so by name, son of so and so. He lived happily and mightily for so many years. He is no more, and all that he possessed has escaped from his hands. Nothing now remains to him and he will feel no more pain. Remember, he has shown you the way which you must follow." This being said, when all the ceremonies are concluded, they take the corpse to the place where the bodies of kings are burnt, and commit it to the flames. These people do not grieve and lament very much on these occasions. In all the countries of Hind and Sind there are Musulmans and they bury their dead secretly by night in their houses, but like the Indians they do not give way to long lamentations.
  • In the country of the Balhará concubinage is permitted with all persons except married women. Thus a man may have intercourse with his daughter, his sister, or his aunts, provided they be unmarried.
  • Opposite the sea-port town of Barúh lies the island of Mullan, which produces pepper in large quantities, and is two days' journey from Sindán.
  • From Sindán to Balbak is also two days. Balbak produces cocoa nuts, figs, bananas, and rice. It is here that vessels change their courses for the different islands of India. From hence to the place called Great Abyss they reckon two days.
  • From the island of Balbak to that of Sarandíb is one day or more.
  • From the town of Barúh, along the coast, to Sindábúr four days.
  • Sindábúr is situated on a great gulf where ships cast anchor. It is a commercial town, and contains fine buildings and rich bazars.
  • From hence to Bána [Tánna] upon the coast four days.
  • Bána [Tánna] is a pretty town upon a great gulf where vessels anchor and from whence they set sail. In the neighbouring mountains the kaná and tabáshír grow. The roots of the kaná which are gathered here are transported to the east and to the west. The tabáshír is adulterated by mixing it with ivory cinders, but the real article is extracted from the roots of the reed called sharkí, as we have already said.

1. "Kandarina" in p.86

[p.90]:
  • Fandarína is a town built at the mouth of a river which comes from Manibar [Malabar] where vessels from India and Sind cast anchor. The inhabitants are rich, the markets well supplied, and trade flourishing. North of this town there is a very high mountain covered with trees, villages, and flocks. The cardamom grows here, and forms the staple of a considerable trade. It grows like the grains of hemp, and the grains are enclosed in pods.
  • From Fandarína to Jirbatan, a populous town on a little river, is five days. It is fertile in rice and grain, and supplies provisions to the markets of Sarandíb. Pepper grows in the neighbouring mountains.
  • From Jirbatan to Sanji and Kaikasár two days. These are maritime towns near to each other; the neighbourhood produces rice and corn.
  • From hence to Kilkáyán one day.
  • From Kilkáyán to Lulu and to Kanja one day. The vicinity is fertile in rice and wheat, and produces sapan wood abundantly. The growth of this tree resembles that of the oleander. Cocoa nut trees abound.
  • From Kanja to Samandár thirty miles.
  • Samandár is a large town, commercial, and rich, where there are good profits to be made. It is a port dependant upon Kanauj, king of this country. It stands upon a river which comes from the country of Kashmír. Rice and various grains, especially excellent wheat, are to be obtained here. Aloe wood is brought hither from the country of Kármút [Kamrúp?] 15 days' distance, by a river of which the waters are sweet. The aloe wood which comes from this country is of a superior quality and of a delicious perfume. It grows in the mountains of Káran. One day's sail from this city there is a large island well peopled and frequented by merchants of all countries. It is four days distant from the island of Sarandíb.
  • To the north, at seven days' distance from Samandár, is the city of Kashmír the inner, celebrated throughout India, which is under the rule of Kanauj.
  • From Kashmír to Kármút four days.
  • From Kashmír to Kanauj about seven days. This is a fine commercial city which gives its name to the king of the country. It is built upon the banks of a large river which falls into the Musala.2
  • This river Musala is called by the author of the Book of Marvels, the River of Perfumes. It rises in the mountains of Káran, washes

[p.91]:

the walls of the town of Asnánd, passes the foot of the mountain of Lúniya, then by the town of Kilkayán, and at length falls into the sea. Many aromatics are produced upon its banks, as its name indicates.

  • Between Rasnánd and Kashmír the outer, there are four days journey.
  • Kashmír is reckoned among the number of the most celebrated cities. Its inhabitants war with the infidel Turks, and they often suffer injury from the Khizilji Turks.
  • Atrásá, which stands upon the banks of the Indian Ganges,1 is four days journey from Kashmír the outer. It is large, well-built, well watered, and one of the strongest places of Kanauj, the limits of which extend as far as Kábul and Laháwar. The Kanauj is a king who has numerous armies under his command, a vast empire and a great number of elephants; no king in India has so many. His power and his wealth are great, and his armies formidable.
  • From Atrásá to Yánásat (Benares?), a large city, also on the bank of the Ganges, five days.
  • From thence to Madiar on the Ganges seven days. This is a rich commercial town, populous, and surrounded by numerous villages.
  • From thence to Nahrwára on the west bank of the Ganges, and of which we have already spoken, seven days.
  • From Madiar to the city of Malwa five days.
  • Malwa is a pleasant town, and much frequented. It is surrounded with many villages, buildings, and farms. Among the number of its dependencies are Dadh (Darh) and Tata.
  • From Malwa to Dadh four days.
  • From Dadh to Tata two days.
  • Lahor is a country which joins2 the latter.
  • From Morídas to Tata three days.
  • Morídas, a commercial town, is a very strong place, garrisoned by the troops of Kábul. It is situated on the declivity of a very high mountain, on which grow the kaná and khaizuran.
  • Kandahár is a city built in the mountains of which we have just spoken, eight days' journey from Morídas, and the road from one place to the other passes over the mountains. It is a considerable town, and well-peopled. The inhabitants are remarkable for the manner in which they allow their beards to grow. Their beards are large and very thick, and hang down to their knees. This has

[p.92]: given rise to a proverbial saying. They are stout in person, and wear the Turkish costume. The country produces wheat, rice, various grains, sheep, and oxen. They eat sheep which have died a natural death, but not oxen, as we have already observed.
  • From Kandahár to Nahrwára is five days' journey in carriages. The people of Kandahár are often at war with those of Kábul, which is an Indian city, large and well built, bordering upon Tukháristán. The mountains produce excellent aloe wood, and the neighbourhood supplies cocoa nuts and myrobolans, which grow in the hills, and of that sort which is called Kábuli, from this town. In the lowlands saffron is largely cultivated, and is the object of a large export trade. It is a hazardous crop, depending upon the state of the atmosphere. The city of Kandahár is defended by a very strong citadel built upon a scarped rock, and is accessible by one road only. It is inhabited by Musulmáns, and there is a quarter in which the infidel Jews dwell. No king can take the title of Sháh until he has been inaugurated at Kábul. According to an ancient law, the assumption of power must be made in that city, hence it is resorted to from foreign and very distant countries. In the fertile lands of Kábul a good deal of indigo is cultivated of the very best quality, it has a great repute, and is the object of a great trade. Cotton cloths are also made here, and are exported to China, Khurásán, and Sind. There are some well-known iron mines in the mountains of Kábul. The metal is of a grey colour, and veined-it becomes very sharp.
  • Arzalán, Khawás, and Khibar are dependencies of Kábul, with divers villages and fortified places.
  • From Kábul to Khawás four days.
  • From Khawás to Hasak five days.
  • From Hasak to Kábul, through a tolerably level country, three days.
  • From Kábul to Kalbata four days.
  • Kalbata and Rúmala are on the borders of the desert which separates Multán from Sijistán. They are both towns of middling size, inhabited by Sindians, Indians, and a few natives of Sijistán. They produce wheat, rice, and fruits in small quantities. The drinking water is obtained from fountains and wells. Cotton cloths are made here, and sold in the country round.
  • At the east of Multán is the town of Aughasht, four days' journey from Kandahár, and the same from Multán. A small quantity of

[p.93]: kaná grows in the environs. The inhabitants are few but rich. From Aughasht to Rúmala ten days.
  • This is the sum of what we had to say about the country comprised in the present Section. As to the maritime portion, what we have already said about the islands seems sufficient. Nevertheless, it is well to know that, starting from the island of Sarandíb, of which we have spoken under the first climate, with the intention of gaining the continent by the shortest course, Jirbátan1 is the place to land at, for this is but little more than half a day's sail. If it is necessary to go towards the east, the landing must be made at Kaikasár, or at the foot of the mountain of Umri, which is very high, stretches towards the north, and forms a large reef in the sea. From this reef to Sarandíb is about four days. All this well-known mountain is covered with sapan wood, which is exported. The root of the sapan quickly soothes the pain caused by the bite of serpents.

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