Iberian

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Author:Laxman Burdak, IFS (R)
Ethnic map of the Caucasus in the 5th and 4th centuries BC.
Iberia during the Second Punic War, showing the short-lived Carthaginian (yellow) and Roman (red) territories and allies

Iberians were a set of peoples that Greek and Roman sources [1] identified with that name in the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian peninsula (the Roman Hispania, modern Spain and Portugal) in Southwestern Europe, at least from the 6th century BC. The Roman sources also use the term Hispani to refer to the Iberians.

Variants of name

Jat Gotras Namesake

Jat Gotras Namesake

History

The term Iberian, as used by the ancient authors, had two distinct meanings. One, more general, referred to all the populations of the Iberian peninsula without regard to ethnic differences (Pre-Indo-European, Celts and non-Celtic Indo-Europeans). The other, more restricted ethnic sense, refers to the people living in the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula, which by the 6th century BC had absorbed cultural influences from the Phoenicians and the Greeks.[4] This pre-Indo-European cultural group spoke the Iberian language from the 7th to the 1st century BC.

Other peoples possibly related to the Iberians are the Vascones, though more related to the Aquitani than to the Iberians. The rest of the peninsula, in the northern, central, northwestern, western and southwestern areas, was inhabited by Celts or Celtiberians groups and the possibly Pre-Celtic or Proto-Celtic Indo-European Lusitanians, Vettones, and the Turdetani.

The Iberian culture developed from the 6th century BC, and perhaps as early as the fifth to the third millennium BC in the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian peninsula.[5][6][7] The Iberians lived in villages and oppida (fortified settlements) and their communities were based on a tribal organization. The Iberians in the Spanish Levant were more urbanized than their neighbors in the central and northwestern regions of the Iberian peninsula. The peoples in the central and northwest regions were mostly Celtic, semi-pastoral and lived in scattered villages, though they also had a few fortified towns like Numantia.[8] They had a knowledge of writing, metalworking, including bronze, and agricultural techniques.

Settlements

In the centuries preceding Carthaginian and Roman conquest, Iberian settlements grew in social complexity, exhibiting evidence of social stratification and urbanization. This process was probably aided by trading contacts with the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians.

The settlement of Castellet de Banyoles in Tivissa was one of the most important ancient Iberian settlements in the north eastern part of the Iberian peninsula that was discovered in 1912. Also, the 'Treasure of Tivissa', a unique collection of silver Iberian votive offerings was found here in 1927.[9]

Lucentum was another ancient Iberian settlement, as well as Castelldefels Castle.

Mausoleum of Pozo Moro near the town of Chinchilla de Monte-Aragón in Castile-La Mancha seems to mark the location of another big settlement.

Sagunto is the location of an ancient Iberian and later Roman city of Saguntum, where a big fortress was built in the 5th century BC.

Greek colonists made the first historical reference to the Iberians in the 6th century BC. They defined Iberians as non-Celtic peoples south of the Ebro river (Iber). The Greeks also dubbed as "Iberians" another people in the Caucasus region, currently known as Caucasian Iberians. It is thought that there is no connection between the two peoples.

The Iberians traded extensively with other Mediterranean cultures. Iberian pottery and metalwork has been found in France, Italy, and North Africa. The Iberians had extensive contact with Greek colonists in the Spanish colonies of Emporion, Rhode, and Hemeroskopeion. The Iberians may have adopted some of the Greeks' artistic techniques. Statues such as the Lady of Baza and the Lady of Elx are thought to have been made by Iberians relatively well acquainted with Greek art. Thucydides stated that one of the three original tribes of Sicily, the Sicani, were of Iberian origin, though "Iberian" at the time could have included what we think of as Gaul.[10]

The Iberians also had contacts with the Phoenicians, who had established various colonies in southern Andalucia. Their first colony on the Iberian Peninsula was founded in 1100 BC and was originally called Gadir, later renamed by the Romans as Gades (modern Cádiz). Other Phoenician colonies in southern Iberia included Malaka (Málaga), Sexi and Abdera.

Second Punic War and Roman conquest

After the First Punic war, the massive war debt suffered by Carthage led them to attempt to expand their control over the Iberian peninsula. Hamilcar Barca began this conquest from his base at Cádiz by conquering the Tartessian Guadalquivir river region, which was rich in silver. After Hamilcar's death, his son-in-law Hasdrubal continued his incursions into Iberia, founding the colony of Qart Hadasht (modern Cartagena) and extending his influence all the way to the southern bank of the river Ebro. After Hasdrubal's assassination in 221 BC, Hannibal assumed command of the Carthaginian forces and spent two years completing the conquest of the Iberians south of the Ebro.[11] In his first campaign, Hannibal defeated the Olcades, the Vaccaei and the Carpetani expanding his control over the river Tagus region.[12] Hannibal then laid siege to Roman ally of Saguntum and this led to the beginning of the Second Punic War. The Iberian theater was a key battleground during this war and many Iberian and Celtiberian warriors fought for both Rome and Carthage, though most tribes sided with Carthage.

Rome sent Gnaeus and Publius Cornelius Scipio to conquer Iberia from Carthage. Gnaeus subsequently defeated the Iberian Ilergetes tribe north of the Ebro who were allied with Carthage, conquered the Iberian oppidum of Tarraco and defeated the Carthaginian fleet. After the arrival of Publius Scipio, Tarraco was fortified and, by 211 BC, the Scipio brothers had overrun the Carthaginian and allied forces south of the Ebro. However, during this campaign, Publius Scipio was killed in battle and Gnaeus died in the retreat. The tide turned with the arrival of Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus in 210 BC. Scipio attacked and conquered Carthago Nova and defeated the army of Hasdrubal Barca at the Battle of Baecula (209-208). The war dragged on with Carthage sending more reinforcements until the Battle of Ilipa (modern Alcalá del Río in Sevilla province), which was a decisive victory for Publius Scipio Africanus. The Carthaginians retreated to Gades, and Publius Scipio gained control over the entire south of the peninsula. After this victory, the Ilergetes and other Iberian tribes revolted and it was only after this revolt that the Romans conquered the rest of the Carthaginian territories in southern Spain.

After the Carthaginian defeat, the Iberian territories were divided into two major provinces, Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior. In 197 BC, the Iberian tribes revolted once again in the H. Citerior province. After securing these regions, Rome invaded and conquered Lusitania and Celtiberia. The Romans fought a long and drawn out campaign for the conquest of Lusitania. Wars and campaigns in the northern regions of the Iberian peninsula would continue until 16 BC, when the final rebellions of the Cantabrian Wars were defeated.

Iberian culture

Iberian society was divided into different classes, including kings or chieftains (Latin: "regulus"), nobles, priests, artisans and slaves. Iberian aristocracy, often called a "senate" by the ancient sources, met in a council of nobles. Kings or chieftains would maintain their forces through a system of obligation or vassalage that the Romans termed "fides".[13]

The Iberians adopted wine and olives from the Greeks. Horse breeding was particularly important to the Iberians and their nobility. Mining was also very important for their economy, especially the silver mines near Gader and Cartago Nova, the iron mines in the Ebro valley, as well as the exploitation of tin and copper deposits. They produced fine metalwork and high quality iron weapons such as the falcata.

The Iberians produced sculpture in stone and bronze, most of which was much influenced by the Greeks and Phoenicians, and other cultures such as Assyrian, Hittite and Egyptian influences. The styles of Iberian sculpture are divided geographically into Levantine, Central, Southern, and Western groups, of which the Levantine group displays the most Greek influence. Iberian pottery and painting was also distinct and widespread throughout the region.

The Iberian polytheistic religion was influenced by the Greek and Phoenician practices, as it is evident in their sculptures. The man-bull Bicha of Balazote (possibly a fertility deity) and various depictions of sphinxes and lions bear a resemblance to eastern Mediterranean mythological creatures. The Lady of Elche and Lady of Guardamar show clear Hellenistic influence. Phoenician and Greek deities like Tanit, Baal, Melkart, Artemis, Demeter and Asclepius were known in the region and worshiped. Currently few native Iberian gods are known, though the oracular healing deity "Betatun" is known from a Latin inscription at Fuertes del Rey.[14] There was clearly an important female deity associated with the earth and regeneration as depicted by the Lady of Baza and linked with birds, flowers and wheat.[15] The horse was also an important religious figure and an important sanctuary dedicated to Horses has been found in Mula (Murcia). There are many depictions of a "horse taming god" or "lord of the horses" (despotes hippon). The female goddess Ataegina is also widely attested in the inscriptions.

Iberians performed their rites in the open and also maintained sanctuaries in holy places like groves, springs and caves.[16] Archaeological evidence suggests the existence of a priestly class and Silius Italicus mentions priests in the region of Tartessos at a temple of Melqart. Evidence from pottery reveals some information about Iberian myth and ritual. Common themes are a celebratory ritual dance described by Strabo [c.f. 3.3.7.] and seen in a relief from Fuerte del Rey known as the "Bastetania dance" and the confrontation between the deceased and a wolf figure.[17] Ritual sacrifice of animals was also common.

The Iberians incinerated their dead and placed their ashes in ceremonial urns, the remains were then placed in stone tombs.

Iberians venerated the war god Cariociecus.

Warfare

Iberian soldiers were widely employed by Carthage and Rome as mercenaries and auxiliary troops. A large portion of Carthaginian forces during the Punic wars was made up of Iberians and Celtiberians. Iberian warfare was endemic and based on intertribal raiding and pillaging. In set piece battle, Iberians were known to regularly charge and retreat, throwing javelins and shouting at their opponents without actually committing to full contact combat. This sort of fighting was termed concursare by the Romans.[18] The Iberians were particularly fond of ambushes and guerrilla tactics.

Ancient sources mention two major types of Iberian infantry, scutati and caetrati. Scutati were heavily armored and carried large Celtic type scutum shield. The caetrati carried the caetra, a small Iberian buckler.[19] Iberian armaments included the famed Gladius Hispaniensis, a curved sword called the falcata, straight swords, spears, javelins and an all iron spear called the Soliferrum. Iberian horsemen were a key element of Iberian forces as well as Carthaginian armies. Spain was rich with excellent wild horses and Iberian cavalry was some of the best in the ancient Mediterranean.

Iberian tribes

Iberians dwelt along eastern and southern coastal regions of the Iberian Peninsula, that corresponds to the northwestern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, roughly in today's Catalonia, Eastern, Northeastern and Northern Aragon, Valencian Community, Murcia Region, Eastern Andalucia, and the Balearic Islands (in Spain), and also in today's Roussillon and parts of Languedoc (in France). The peninsula has this name because ancient Greeks, Romans and other mediterranean peoples first contacted with peoples (tribes or tribal confederacies) that were Iberians in the ethnic and linguistic sense, although the majority of the Iberian Peninsula's peoples, that dwelt in the Northern, Central and Western regions (the majority of the peninsula's area), were not Iberians themselves in the ethnic and linguistic sense (they could only be considered Iberians in the geographical sense, i.e. they dwelt in the Iberian Peninsula).

The Iberian tribes or tribal confederacies were:

  • Andosini - in the mountains of East Pyrenees southern slopes, in the high Segre river basin, area of modern Andorra.
  • Ausetani - in the Osona region (old County of Osona), in the middle Ter river basin. Ausa (today's Vic) was their main centre.
  • Bastetani/Bastitani/Bastuli - The biggest iberian tribal confederation in area, they dwelt in a territory that included large areas of the Mediterranean coast and the Sierra Nevada, in what are today parts of the modern provinces of Murcia, Albacete, Jaén, Almería, Granada and Málaga. Basti (today's Baza) was their main centre.
  • Bergistani/Bergusii - in the high Llobregat river basin, roughly in today's Barcelona province. Berga was their main centre. North of the Lacetani.
  • Castellani - in the high Ter river basin, East Pyrenees southern slopes. North of the Ausetani.
  • Cessetani/Cossetani - in the Tarraco region (roughly in today's central and east Tarragona province), in the Mediterranean coastal region. Kese (Tarraco in Roman times, that would become the Hispania Tarraconensis capital), was their main centre.
  • Ceretani/Cerretani - in Cerretana (today's Cerdanya/Cerdaña) and other East Pyrenees mountains southern slopes, also in the high Segre and Noguera rivers basins (tributaries of the Iberus - Ebro river), in the east part of Ribagorça. Libyca or Julia Libyca (today's Llivia) was their main centre. North of the Ilergetes and the Bergistani.
  • Contestani - South of the Sucro (Xúquer) river and north of the Thader (Segura) river, in an area that today is roughly part of the Alicante/Alacant, Valencia, Murcia and Albacete provinces. A tribal confederation. East of the Bastetani. Centres included Saetabi (modern Xàtiva) and la Bastida de les Alcusses.
  • Deitani - in and around Ilici territory (today's Elx/Elche)
  • Edetani - North of the Sucro (Xúquer/Júcar) river and south of the Millars river, roughly in today's Valencia province. One of the biggest iberian tribes or tribal confederations. Edeta (Roman times Lauro, today's Lliria), to the northwest of Valencia, was their main centre, Arse (Saguntum in Roman times, today's Sagunto/Sagunt) was also in their territory. North of the Contestani and the Bastetani and south of the Ilercavones.
  • Elisyces/Helisyces - a tribe that dwelt in the region of Narbo (Narbonne) and modern northern Roussillon. May have been either Iberian or Ligurian or a Ligurian-Iberian tribe.
  • Ilercavones - in the low Iberus (Ebro) river basin to the Millars river along the mediterranean coast and to the inland towards the Sierra de Gúdar, in Ilercavonia. One of the biggest iberian tribes or tribal confederations. Hibera (Roman time Dertusa or Dertosa, modern time Tortosa) was their main centre. North of the Edetani, south of the Ilergetes, east of the Sedetani and west of the Cessetani.
  • Ilergetes/Ilergetae - in the plains area of the middle and low Segre and Cinca rivers towards the Iberus (Ebro) river margins. One of the biggest iberian tribes or tribal confederations. Iltrida (Ilerda in Roman times, today's Lérida/Lleida) was their main centre. Indibilis, king or chief of the Ilergetes, resisted against the Carthaginian and Roman invasions.
  • Indigetes/Indigetae - in the low Ter river basin, East Pyrenees southern slopes, they occupied the far north east area of the Iberian Peninsula known as Hispania Tarraconensis, in the gulf of Empodrae (Empúries) and Rhoda (Roses), stretching up into the Pyrenees though the regions of Empordà, Selva and perhaps as far as Gironès, in what is roughly today's Girona Province. Indika/Indiga or Undika was their main centre. A tribal confederation: they was formed by four tribes. The Indigetes minted their own coins which bore the inscription undikesken in northeastern Iberian script that is interpreted in Iberian language as a self-reference to the ethnic name of that people: from the Indigetes or from those of undika. In 218 BC they were conquered by Rome during the Roman conquest of Hispania. In 195 BC they rebelled; the consul Marcus Porcius Cato quashed the rebellion.[20]
  • Lacetani - in the middle Llobregat river basin and surrounding hills. Northwest of the Laietani.
  • Laietani - in the low Llobregat river basin, along a part of the mediterranean coast roughly in what is today a part of the Barcelona province and Barcelona city. Laieta (Barcino in Roman times and Barcelona in modern times) was their main centre.
  • Oretani - In the high Baetis (Guadalquivir) river valley, eastern Marianus Mons (Sierra Morena) and southern area of today's La Mancha. They could have been an Iberian tribe, a Celtic one, or a mixed Celtic and Iberian tribe or tribal confederacy (and hence related to the Celtiberians). The Mantesani/Mentesani/Mantasani of today's La Mancha and the Germani (of Oretania) in eastern Marianus Mons (Sierra Morena) and west Jabalón river valley, sometimes are included in the Oretani but it is not certain if they were Oretani tribes.
  • Sedetani - south of the Iberus (Ebro) river and west of the Guadalope river, roughly in the middle basin of the Iberus (Ebro). Salduie (Roman time Salduba and Caesaraugusta and modern time Zaragoza) was in their territory. May have been more closely related to the Edetani. West of the Ilercavones.
  • Sordones - in the Roussillon territory (Pyrénées Orientales Départment, France), Ruscino (today's Château-Roussillon near Perpignan) was their main centre.
  • Vescetani/Oscenses - In today's northern Aragon, east of Gállego river, in Sobrarbe, in and around Bolskan, later Osca (Huesca), and high Cinca River valley, Spain. They could also be related to the Vascones and therefore be related to the Aquitani speaking the Aquitanian language, or a mixed Iberian-Aquitanian tribe or tribal conderacy.
  • Unknown named tribe or tribes in the Balearic Islands (formed by the Pityusic Islands and Gymnesian islands), may have been Iberians.

Mention by Pliny

Pliny[21] mentions...At the back of the mountains of this district is Iberia, while on the coast are the Heniochi, the Ampreutæ25, the Lazi, the rivers Acampsis,26 Isis,27 Mogrus, and Bathys,28 the nations of the Colchi, the town of Matium,29 the river Heracleum and the promontory of the same name,30 and the Phasis,31 the most celebrated river of Pontus.

25 It is suggested by Hardouin that these are the same as the Zydretæ mentioned in the Periplus of Arrian, and by him placed between the Heniochi and the Lazi.

26 See note 91.

27 Supposed to be the same as the modem Tshorok.

28 Or "Deep" River. This stream may possibly be identified by observing that Pliny places only one river between it and the Phasis.

29 Probably the Madia of Ptolemy, who places it in the interior.

30 At the present day called Eraklia, according to Parisot.

31 Now called the Faz or Poti'.

Mention by Pliny

Pliny[22] mentions Albania, Iberia, and The Adjoining Nations....The whole plain which extends away from the river Cyrus is inhabited by the nation of the Albani1, and, after them,2 by that of the Iberi3, who are separated from them by the river Alazon4, which flows into the Cyrus from the Caucasian chain.

1 According to Strabo, Albania was bounded on the east by the Caspian, and on the north by the Caucasus. On the west it joined Iberia, while on the south it was divided from the Greater Armenia by the river Cyrus. By later writers, the northern and western boundaries are differently given. It was found to be the fact that the Albani occupied the country on both sides of the Caucasus, and accordingly Pliny, in c. 15, carries the country further north, as far as the river Casius, while in this Chapter he makes the river Alazon, the modern Alasan, the western boundary towards Iberia. To the west of Albania.

2 To the west of Albania

3 Iberia lay south of the great chain of the Caucasus, forming an extensive tract bounded on the west by Colchis, on the east by Albania, and on the south by Armenia, and watered by the river Cyrus. It corresponded very nearly with modern Georgia.

4 The modern Alasan.

Ch.16 The Worship of Hercules in Tyre.— The Tyrians refuse to admit Alexander (p.117-120)

The reason of this demand was, that in Tyre there existed a temple of Heracles,[1] the most ancient of all those which are mentioned in history. It was not dedicated to the Argive Heracles, the son of Alcmena; for this Heracles was honoured in Tyre many generations before Cadmus set out from Phoenicia and occupied Thebes, and before Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, was born, from whom Dionysus, the son of Zeus, was born. This Dionysus would be third from Cadmus, being a contemporary of Labdacus, son of Polydorus, the son of Cadmus; and the Argive Heracles lived about the time of Oedipus, son of Laius.[2] The Egyptians also worshipped another Heracles, not the one which either the Tyrians or Greeks worship. But Herodotus says that the Egyptians considered Heracles to be one of the twelve gods,[3] just as the Athenians worshipped a different Dionysus, who was the son of Zeus and Core; and the mystic chant called Iacchus was sung to this Dionysus, not to the Theban. So also I think that the Heracles honoured in Tartessus[4] by the Iberians, where are certain pillars named after Heracles, is the Tyrian Heracles; for Tartessus was a colony of the Phœnicians, and the temple to Heracles there was built and the sacrifices offered after the usage of the Phoenicians. Hecataeus the historian[5] says Geryones, against whom the Argive Heracles was despatched by Eurystheus to drive his oxen away and bring them to Mycenae, had nothing to do with the land of the Iberians;[6] nor was Heracles despatched to any island called Erythia[7] outside the Great Sea; but that Geryones was king of the mainland (Epirus) around Ambracia[8] and the Amphilochians, that Heracles drove the oxen from this Epirus, and that this was deemed no mean task. I know that to the present time this part of the mainland is rich in pasture land and rears a very fine breed of oxen; and I do not think it beyond the bounds of probability that the fame of the oxen from Epirus, and the name of the king of Epirus, Geryones, had reached Eurystheus. But I do not think that Eurystheus would know the name of the king of the Iberians, who were the remotest nation in Europe, or whether a fine breed of oxen grazed in their land, unless some one, by introducing Hera into the account, as herself giving these commands to Heracles through Eurystheus, wished, by means of the fable, to disguise the incredibility of the tale.

To this Tyrian Heracles, Alexander said he wished to offer sacrifice. But when this message was brought to Tyre by the ambassadors, the people passed a decree to obey any other command of Alexander, but not to admit into the city any Persian or Macedonian; thinking that under the existing circumstances, this was the most specious answer, and that it would be the safest course for them to pursue in reference to the issue of the war, which was still uncertain.[9] When the answer from Tyre was brought to Alexander, he sent the ambassadors back in a rage. He then summoned a council of his Companions and the leaders of his army, together with the captains of infantry and cavalry, and spoke as follows:—

1. The Phoenician god Melkarth (lord of the city), whom the Syrians called Baal (lord), was supposed to be identical with the Grecian Heracles, or Hercules, who was the mythical ancestor of the Macedonian kings. Curtius (iv. 7) tells us that Alexander affirmed he had been ordered by an oracle to sacrifice in Tyre to Heracles. Gesenius informs us that a Maltese inscription identifies the Tyrian Melkarth with Heracles.

2. Who was the son of Labdacus.

3. See Herodotus, ii. 43, 44.

4. The district comprising all the south-west of Spain outside the pillars of Heracles, or Straits of Gibraltar, was called Tartessus, of which the chief city was Tartessus. Here the Phoenicians planted colonies, one of which still remains under the name of Cadiz. The Romans called the district Baetica, from the principal river, the Baetis or Guadalquivir. The Hebrew name for this region is Tarshish, of which Tartessus is the Greek form. Tarshish was the station for the Phoenician trade with the West, which extended as far as Cornwall. The Tyrians fetched from this locality silver, iron, lead, tin, and gold (Isa. xxiii. 1, 6, 10, lxvi. 19; Jer. x. 9; Ezek. xxvii. 12, xxxviii. 13). Martial, Seneca, and Avienus, the first two of whom were Spaniards, understood Tartessus to stand for the south-west of Spain and Portugal. The word Tarshish probably means sea-coast, from the Sanscrit tarischa, the sea. Ovid (Met., xiv. 416); Martial, viii. 28; Silius, xiii. 673.

5. Of Miletus. Herodotus knew his writings well, but they have not come down to us. See Herod, (ii. 143; v. 36 and 125).

6. The Iberians were originally called Tibarenes, or Tibari. They dwelt on the east of the Black Sea, and west of Colchis, whence they emigrated to Spain. This nation is called Tubal in the Hebrew Bible; in Isa.', lxvi. 19 the Iberians of western Europe are referred to.

7. An island near Cadiz, now called Leon. Cf. Hesiod (Theogonia, . 287-294); Herodotus, iv. 8. Now called Arta.

8. Arrian omits to mention that the Tyrians pointed out to him that his wish to sacrifice to Hercules might be gratified without entering their city, since at Palaetyrus, on the mainland, separated from Tyre only by a narrow strait, was a temple of that deity more ancient than that in Tyre. See Curtius, iv. 7; Justin, xi. 10. We learn from Arrian, i. 18, that when Alexander offered sacrifice to the Ephesian Diana he marched to the temple with his whole army in battle array. No doubt it was this kind of thing the Tyrians objected to. Alexander actually did the same at Tyre after its capture. (See chapter 24.)

p.117-120

इबेरिया प्रायद्वीप

इबेरियाई प्रायद्वीप या इबेरिया, यूरोप के दक्षिणपश्चिम भाग में स्थित एक प्रायद्वीप है। इस प्रायद्वीप के दक्षिण और पूर्व में भूमध्य सागर है और उत्तर और पश्चिम में अन्ध महासागर। यह ५,८२,८६० वर्ग किमी क्षेत्रफल के साथ यूरोप का तीसरा सबसे बड़ा प्रायद्वीप है। इबेरिया इस क्षेत्र के लिए एक प्राचीन यूनानी नाम है जिसे रोमन "हिस्पैनिया" कहते थे। हिस्पैनिया शब्द अब केवल स्पेन के लिए प्रयुक्त होता है, जबकि इबेरिया नाम इस पूरे प्रायद्वीप के लिए जिसपर अन्य देश भी स्थित हैं।

इस प्रायद्वीप पर निम्नलिखित देश स्थित हैं:

  • स्पेन, इस प्रायद्वीप पर स्थित सबसे बड़ा देश जो प्रायद्वीप के अधिकान्श भाग को घेरे हुए है।
  • पुर्तगाल, प्रायद्वीप के पश्चिमी तट स्थित एक देश।
  • अण्डोरा, प्रायद्वीप के उत्तरी कोने पर स्थित एक छोटा-सा देश जो फ़्रान्स और स्पेन के मध्य स्थित है।
  • जिब्राल्टर, एक ब्रिटिश पारसमुद्री राज्यक्षेत्र।

आभीर

विजयेन्द्र कुमार माथुर[23] ने लेख किया है ...आभीर (AS, p.66) गुजरात का दक्षिण-पूर्वी भाग है। यूनानियों ने इसे अबेरिया कहा है। टॉलमी ने इस देश को सिंध-नदी के मुहाने के निकट स्थित बताया है। (मेकिंडल टॉलमी-पृ. 140) ब्रह्मांडपुराण 6 में भी इसी तथ्य का उल्लेख है और सिंधु को आभीर देश में बहने वाली नदी कहा गया है। महाभारत सभा पर्व 31 में आभीरों को सरस्वती नदी (सोमनाथ के निकट) के तीर तथा समुद्र‌-तट के निवासी बताया गया है।

References

  1. ↑ (among others, Hecataeus of Miletus, Avienus, Herodotus and Strabo)
  2. ↑ Aitihasik Sthanavali by Vijayendra Kumar Mathur, p.66
  3. ↑ Aitihasik Sthanavali by Vijayendra Kumar Mathur, p.66
  4. ↑ An English-language survey is Richard J. Harrison, Spain at the Dawn of History: Iberians, Phoenicians and Greeks (Thames & Hudson), 1988.
  5. ↑ "Iberians – MSN Encarta".
  6. ↑ Iberians – Encyclopedia.com
  7. ↑ Spain: Historical Setting – Library of Congress Country Study – Iberia
  8. ↑ J. S. Richardson, Hispaniae; Spain and the Development of Roman Imperialism, 218-82 BC, page 16.
  9. ↑ Castellet de Banyoles (Tivissa) Museu d'Arqueologia de Catalunya
  10. ↑ "Sicilian Peoples: The Sicanians". Best of Sicily. 7 October 2007.
  11. ↑ "Sicilian Peoples: The Sicanians". Best of Sicily. 7 October 2007.
  12. ↑ Hoyos, D. Hannibal's Dynasty: Power and Politics in the Western Mediterranean, 247-183 BC, p.89-91, 2003
  13. ↑ Rafael Treviño Martinez, Rome's Enemies (4) : Spanish Armies 218-19 BC (Men at Arms Series, 180)
  14. ↑ Lisbeth Bredholt Christensen, et al. The Handbook of Religions in Ancient Europe
  15. ↑ Lisbeth Bredholt Christensen, et al. The Handbook of Religions in Ancient Europe
  16. ↑ La religiosidad entre los iberos,
  17. ↑ Lisbeth Bredholt Christensen, et al. The Handbook of Religions in Ancient Europe, page
  18. ↑ Rafael Treviño Martinez, Rome's Enemies (4) : Spanish Armies 218-19 BC (Men at Arms Series, 180)
  19. ↑ Rafael Treviño Martinez, Rome's Enemies (4) : Spanish Armies 218-19 BC (Men at Arms Series, 180)
  20. ↑ Varga, Daniel (2015). The Roman Wars in Spain: The Military Confrontation with Guerrilla Warfare. Pen and Sword. pp. 51–52. ISBN 9781473860957.
  21. ↑ Natural History by Pliny Book VI/Chapter 4
  22. ↑ Natural History by Pliny Book VI/Chapter 11
  23. ↑ Aitihasik Sthanavali by Vijayendra Kumar Mathur, p.66
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