Hengist and Horsa

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Author:Laxman Burdak, IFS (R)
Hengest and Horsa, from A Restitution of Decayed Intelligence by Richard Verstegan (1605)

Hengist and Horsa (हेंगिस्ट और होरसा) (449 AD) are Germanic brothers said to have led the Angles, Saxons and Jutes in their invasion of Britain in the 5th century. Tradition lists Hengist as the first of the Jutish kings (Jat King) of Kent in South East England. According to Bede, Hengist and Horsa were the sons of Wictgils, son of Witta, son of Wecta, son of Woden. [1]

Variants

Etymology

The Old English names Hengest [ˈhendʒest] and Horsa [ˈhorˠzɑ] mean "stallion" and "horse", respectively. [4]

The original Old English word for a horse was eoh. Eoh derives from the Proto-Indo-European base *éḱwos, hence Latin equus which gave rise to the modern English words equine and equestrian. Hors is derived from the Proto-Indo-European base *kurs, to run, which also gave rise to hurry, carry and current (the latter two are borrowings from French). Hors eventually replaced eoh, fitting a pattern elsewhere in Germanic languages where the original names of sacred animals are abandoned for adjectives; for example, the word bear, meaning 'the brown one'. While the Ecclesiastical History and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle refer to the brother as Horsa, in the History of the Britons his name is simply Hors. It has been suggested that Horsa may be a pet form of a compound name with the first element "horse". [5]

History

Map of Kent and Sussex, South East England

According to early sources, Hengist and Horsa arrived in Britain at Ebbsfleet on the Isle of Thanet. For a time, they served as mercenaries for Vortigern, King of the Britons, but later they turned against him (British accounts have them betraying him in the Treachery of the Long Knives). Horsa was killed fighting the Britons, but Hengist successfully conquered Kent, becoming the forefather of its kings.

Hengist was historically said to have been buried at Hengistbury Head in Dorset.

Ecclesiastical History of the English People:

In his 8th-century Ecclesiastical History, Bede records that the first chieftains among the Angles, Saxons and Jutes in England were said to have been Hengist and Horsa. He relates that Horsa was killed in battle against the Britons and was thereafter buried in East Kent, where at the time of writing a monument still stood to him. According to Bede, Hengist and Horsa were the sons of Wictgils, son of Witta, son of Wecta, son of Woden. [6]

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle:

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which exists in nine manuscripts and fragments, compiled from the 9th to the 12th centuries, records that in the year 449 Hengist and Horsa were invited to Britain by Vortigern to assist his forces in fighting the Picts. They landed at Eopwinesfleot (Ebbsfleet), and went on to defeat the Picts wherever they fought them. Hengist and Horsa sent word home to Germany describing "the worthlessness of the Britons, and the richness of the land" and asked for assistance. Their request was granted and support arrived. Afterward, more people arrived in Britain from "the three powers of Germany; the Old Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes". The Saxons populated Essex, Sussex, and Wessex; the Jutes Kent, the Isle of Wight, and part of Hampshire; and the Angles East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria (leaving their original homeland, Angeln, deserted). The Worcester Chronicle (Chronicle D, compiled in the 11th century), and the Peterborough Chronicle (Chronicle E, compiled in the 12th century), include the detail that these forces were led by the brothers Hengist and Horsa, sons of Wihtgils, son of Witta, son of Wecta, son of Woden, but this information is not included in the A, B, C, or F versions.[7]

In the entry for the year 455 the Chronicle details that Hengist and Horsa fought with Vortigern at Aylesford and that Horsa died there. Hengist took control of the kingdom with his son Esc. In 457, Hengist and Esc fought against British forces in Crayford "and there slew four thousand men". The Britons left the land of Kent and fled to London. In 465, Hengest and Esc fought again at the Battle of Wippedesfleot, probably near Ebbsfleet, and slew twelve British leaders. In the year 473, the final entry in the Chronicle mentioning Hengist or Horsa, Hengist and Esc are recorded as having taken "immense booty" and the Britons having "fled from the English like fire".[8]

History of the Britons:

The 9th century History of the Britons, attributed to the Briton Nennius, records that, during the reign of Vortigern in Britain, three vessels that had been exiled from Germany arrived in Britain, commanded by Hengist and Horsa. The narrative then gives a genealogy of the two: Hengist and Horsa were sons of Guictglis, son of Guicta, son of Guechta, son of Vouden, son of Frealof, son of Fredulf, son of Finn, son of Foleguald, son of Geta. Geta was said to be the son of a god, yet "not of the omnipotent God and our Lord Jesus Christ," but rather "the offspring of one of their idols, and whom, blinded by some demon, they worshipped according to the custom of the heathen." In 447 AD, Vortigern received Hengist and Horsa "as friends" and gave to the brothers the Isle of Thanet.[9]

After the Saxons had lived on Thanet for "some time" Vortigern promised them supplies of clothing and other provisions on condition that they assist him in fighting the enemies of his country. As the Saxons increased in number the Britons became unable to keep their agreement, and so told them their assistance was no longer needed and they should go home.[10]

Vortigern allowed Hengist to send for more of his countrymen to come over to fight for him. Messengers were sent to Scythia (Scythian Jats), where "a number" of warriors were selected, and, with sixteen ships, the messengers returned. With the men came Hengist's beautiful daughter. Hengist prepared a feast, inviting Vortigern, Vortigern's officers, and Ceretic, his translator. Prior to the feast, Hengist enjoined his daughter to serve the guests plenty of wine and ale so that they would become drunk. At the feast Vortigern became enamored with her and promised Hengist whatever he liked in exchange for her betrothal. Hengist, having "consulted with the Elders who attended him of the Angle race," demanded Kent. Without the knowledge of the then-ruler of Kent, Vortigern agreed.[11]

Hengist's daughter was given to Vortigern, who slept with her and deeply loved her. Hengist told him that he would now be both his father and adviser and that he would know no defeat with his counsel, "for the people of my country are strong, warlike, and robust." With Vortigern's approval, Hengist would send for his son and his brother to fight against the Scots and those who dwelt near the wall. Vortigern agreed and Ochta and Ebissa arrived with 40 ships, sailed around the land of the Picts, conquered "many regions," and assaulted the Orkney Islands. Hengist continued to send for more ships from his country, so that some islands where his people had previously dwelt are now free of inhabitants.[12]

Vortigern had meanwhile incurred the wrath of Germanus, Bishop of Auxerre (by taking his own daughter for a wife and having a son by her) and had gone into hiding at the advice of his counsel. But at length his son Vortimer engaged Hengist and Horsa and their men in battle, drove them back to Thanet and there enclosed them and beset them on the western flank. The war waxed and waned; the Saxons repeatedly gained ground and were repeatedly driven back.[13] Vortimer attacked the Saxons four times: first enclosing the Saxons in Thanet, secondly fighting at the river Derwent, the third time at Epsford, where both Horsa and Vortigern's son Catigern died, and lastly "near the stone on the shore of the Gallic sea," where the Saxons were defeated and fled to their ships.

After a "short interval" Vortimer died and the Saxons became established, "assisted by foreign pagans". Hengist convened his forces and sent to Vortigern an offer of peace. Vortigern accepted, and Hengist prepared a feast to bring together the British and Saxon leaders.[14] However, he instructed his men to conceal knives beneath their feet. At the right moment, Hengist shouted nima der sexa (get your knives) and his men massacred the unsuspecting Britons. However, they spared Vortigern, who ransomed himself by giving the Saxons Essex, Sussex, Middlesex and other unnamed districts.[15]

Germanus of Auxerre was acclaimed as commander of the British forces. By praying, singing hallelujah and crying to God, the Saxons were driven to the sea. Germanus then prayed for three days and nights at Vortigern's castle and fire fell from heaven and engulfed the castle. Vortigern, Hengist's daughter, Vortigern's other wives, and all other inhabitants burned to death. Potential alternate fates for Vortigern are provided.[16] However, the Saxons continued to increase in numbers, and after Hengist died his son Ochta succeeded him.[17]

Prose Edda:

Hengist is briefly mentioned in Prologue, the first book of the Prose Edda, written by the Icelander Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century. In Prologue, a euhemerized account of Germanic history is given, including that Woden put three of his sons in charge of Saxony. The ruler of eastern Saxony was Veggdegg, one of whose sons was Vitrgils, the father of Vitta, the father of Hengist. [18]

Horse-head gables

Gable with crossed horse heads, Hanover

On farmhouses in Lower Saxony (in northwestern Germany) and Schleswig-Holstein (in northernmost Germany), horse-head gables were referred to as "Hengst und Hors" (Low German for "stallion and mare") as late as around 1875. Rudolf Simek notes that these horse-head gables can still be seen today, and says that the horse-head gables confirm that Hengist and Horsa were originally considered mythological, horse-shaped beings.[19] Martin Litchfield West comments that the horse heads may have been remnants of pagan religious practices in the area. [20]

Jat History

The people of Kent and Jats from Jutland: Hukum Singh Panwar (Pauria)[21] writes...The basic assumption of all these writers was that Scythians were a race different from the Aryans, that they were foreign to the Indian soil and that they had come to India from outside as invaders.

The theory, though considered "fanciful", yet. "cast a mighty magic upon several generations of scholars [22]," So much so, that when, after the annexation of Panjab, Maharaja Dalip Singh was deported to England, his friend, Col. Sleeman, a former political officer-wrote to the Maharaja that he (Dalip Singh), being a Jat, was going to live among his own people in Kent who are also Jats from Jutland[23]. That the people of Kent are Jats from Jutland is also asserted by Tod when he says that "The Jut brothers Hengist and Horsa, led a colony from Jutland and founded the Kingdom of Kent (Canthi 'a coaste' in Sanskrit as Kontha in Gothic and Kantha in Jatu dialects). The laws they there introduced, more especially the still prevailing one of gavel kind (were alone the sons share equally the ancestral property like the Jats of Haryana & Panjab), are purely Scythic[24]". Does not the customary law of the British and Indian Jats remind us of its primary enforcement by their fore-most alleged forefather, Yayati (infra) who divided his kingdom equally among his five supposed sons? Stamped with the hall-mark of approval of the most eminent British scholars and their Indian followers, the theory rapidly gained popularity throughout the country, especially with the Jats; and the principle of the similarity of the sound of the names of people, though separated by time and space, seems to have been accepted by all, including Waddell, as valid ground for determining a common origin of these people, Waddell, in addition, supports it on archaeological and numismatical grounds.

Prof. B.S. Dhillon[25] writes that Jutes and Jats are same as explained below... 6.7 Jutes: As per Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary[26], the word "Jute" is defined as "a member of a Germanic tribe[27], probably from the mouth of the Rhine, who settled (5th century A.D.) in England in Kent, Hampshire, and the Isle of Wight". Professor Wilson [28] said Jutish warriors under their leaders, Hengist and Horsa, arrived in Kent around 450 A.D. at the invitation of a British ruler in Kent known as Vortigern to defend him from the Scots and Picts.

After a number of years of service to Vortigern, they (Jutes) turned against him and killed many Britons and then took possession of Kent. This opened the door for the arrival of more Jutes from the Continental Europe. Many historians believe that Jutes came to Kent from the lower Rhine area and their agriculture system resembled the one used in Gaul[29]. This judgment appears to be correct and we must also remember that the Alans, a branch of Massagetae ("great Jats") were also well settled by 450 A.D in Gaul. Furthermore, as per Professor Bachrach [30], "After their defeat Alans and Vandals apparently moved northward and east into Germany beyond the Rhine frontier and outside the Roman Empire. The Rhine frontier was largely undefended; both (for Romans) the Franks, who dwelt along the river, and the second-line defenders, the Sarmatians military colonists (known as laeti), who had been settled further to the west during the fourth century ".

Other factors pointing to the Scythian origin of the Jutes are as follows:

  • The Kentish man's 'liberty was his very important characteristic in the Middle Ages [48] (This characteristic is very dear to Jat Sikhs as per Major Barstow[36]).
  • Kentish ceorl was a freeman and it was proudest privilege of birth in Kent during the middle ages, as per Ammlanus Marcellinus [37]all Alans were equal.
  • As per Kentish custom[38]: "that of being marshaled in the van of the national army when being led to war, this claim was one of the warlike privileges of the men of Kent".

History and study of the Jats: End of p.97

Scythian people were well known warriors. Jutes used oxen to plough their fields [49]. Scythians also used oxen for domestic purposes and for heavy work [39].

A Kentish custom [40]in the Middle Ages practiced "extreme individualism and the division of the tenement into separate holdings among each generation of heirs". Furthermore, in the division of father's property [41], the youngest son, appear to have been entitled to the family hearth or homestead on making compensation to his brothers". Similar customs are also practiced even today among South Asian Jats.

The actual word used in Punjab for Jats is "Juts" are almost identical. Furthermore, some English family names such as Gill, Bain, and Mann are identical to the family names of the Jat Sikhs in particular.

British elites such as Gen. Sir MacMunn [50], Col. Sleeman [42], and Col. Tod [43] must have had some reasons to believe that the" Jats" and Jutes were the identical people.

Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans who traveled thousands of miles from their homeland in Central Asia to settle in Europe make it quite impossible to believe if their descendants did not venture into British Isles, without even taking into consideration any historical record; especially in the case of the Alans who not only went as far as Spain and Portugal but also crossed into north Africa and then attacked Rome. As per Professor Bachrach [44] some Alans also settled in Brittany (nineteen miles from the English coast!).

Even if we overlook all the above overwhelming evidence and still conclude that the Jutes originated from Scandinavia, a Scandinavian chronicler [45], stated, regarding the Scythian origin of the Scandinavian people, "certain tribes when they had migrated from Scythia into this region, called it Scythia, as if it were worthy of the name of their first country. Moreover, those tribes I don't know why for some reason they were called "Getae" were also called "Massagetae" ("great" Getae or Jats) after they entered this region. Then, as is usual, when the name had been changed, those who were formerly called "Getae" and afterwards "Gothi".

In conclusion, it appears the Jats or the Scythian people entered British Isles in ancient times at least at three different occasions: Jutes, Sarmatian cavalrymen to serve Roman interests [46] and the Alan of Corlai [18]. Even after hundreds of years of their assimilation into the local population, strangely, some of the British family names are identical or very similar to that of the South Asian Jats. Today, there are at least half million Jat Sikhs (some of them fourth generation) who reside in Great Britain and the native British people find it quite strange to have similar or identical family names with some of them.

History and study of the Jats: End of p.98

Dalip Singh Ahlawat[47] writes that Jat Blood flows in the people of England as the Celts, Jutes, Angles, Saxons and Danes were descendants of Scythian Jats. This is evident from Jat Clans surnames still prevalent in England though they follow Christianity. [48]

ब्रिटेन पर जूट्स, सेक्सन्स और एंगल्स की विजय (410-825 ई.)

Hengest and Horsa, from A Restitution of Decayed Intelligence by Richard Verstegan (1605)

दलीप सिंह अहलावत[49] लिखते हैं: जूट्स, सेक्सन्स और एंगल्स लोग जर्मनी की एल्ब नदी के मुहाने और डेन्मार्क के तट पर रहते थे। ये लोग बड़े बहादुर थे तथा लूटमार किया करते थे। ये क्रिश्चियन धर्म के विरोधी थे।

ब्रिटेन से रोमनों के चले जाने के बाद ब्रिटेन के लोग बहुत कमजोर और असहाय थे। इन लोगों पर स्काटलैंड के केल्टिक कबीलों, पिक्ट्स और स्काट्स ने हमला कर दिया। ब्रिटेन निवासियों की इसमें भारी हानि हुई। इनमें इतनी शक्ति न थी कि वे इन हमलों करने वालों को रोक सकें। इसलिए मदद के लिए इन्होंने जूट लोगों को बुलाया। जूट्स ने उसी समय ब्रिटिश सरदार वरटिगर्न के निमन्त्रण को स्वीकार कर लिया। जटलैण्ड से जाटों की एक विशाल सेना अपने जाट नेता हेंगिस्ट और होरसा के नेतृत्व में सन् 449 ई० में केण्ट (Kent) में उतर गई। इन्होंने पिक्ट्स और स्कॉट्स को हराया और वहां से बाहर निकाल दिया। उन्हें भगाने के बाद जाट ब्रिटेन के लोगों के विरुद्ध हो गये और उन्हें पूरी तरह से अपने वश में कर लिया और 472 ई० तक पूरे केण्ट पर अधिकार कर लिया। यहां पर आबाद हो गये। इसके अतिरिक्त जाटों ने अपना निवास व्हिट द्वीप में किया1।

जटलैण्ड के जाटों की विजय सुनकर उनके दक्षिणवासी सेक्सन्स तथा एंगल्स भी ललचाये। सर्वप्रथम सेक्सन्स ब्रिटेन में पहुंचे और उन्होंने ऐस्सेक्स, मिडिलसेक्स और वेस्सेक्स नाम से तीन राज्य स्थापित किये। वहां पर इन्होंने कुछ बस्तियां आबाद कर दीं। ब्रिटेन की जनता ने बड़ी वीरता से सेक्सन्स का मुकाबला किया और 520 ई० में मोण्डबेडन ने उन्हें करारी हार दी। इस तरह से

1. आधार लेख - इंगलैण्ड का इतिहास पृ० 16-17, लेखक प्रो० विशनदास; हिस्ट्री ऑफ ब्रिटेन पृ० 21-22, लेखक रामकुमार लूथरा, अनटिक्विटी ऑफ जाट रेस, पृ० 63-66, लेखक: उजागरसिंह माहिल; जाट्स दी ऐन्शन्ट रूलर्ज पृ० 86 लेखक बी० एस० दहिया तथा जाट इतिहास अंग्रेजी पृ० 43, लेखक ले० रामसरूप जून।

जाट वीरों का इतिहास: दलीप सिंह अहलावत, पृष्ठान्त-399

सेक्सन्स का बढ़ना कुछ समय के लिए रुक गया। परन्तु 577 ई० में डियोरहम की लड़ाई में सेक्सन्स ने केब्लिन के नेतृत्व में ब्रिटेन लोगों पर पूरी विजय प्राप्त कर ली तथा उनको अपना दास बनाए रखा। यह कामयाबी जूट्स (जाटों) की सहायता से हुई थी जिसके लिए सेक्सन्स ने उनसे मांग की थी1।

अब प्रश्न पैदा होता है कि उन जूट्स (जाटों) का क्या हुआ जिन्होंने हेंगिस्ट और होरसा के नेतृत्व में ब्रिटेन के एक बड़े क्षेत्र पर अधिकार कर लिया था और सेक्सन्स को सहायता देकर उनका ब्रिटेन पर अधिकार करवाया। इसका उत्तर यही हो सकता है कि ब्रिटिश इतिहासकारों ने इनके इतिहास को लिखने में पक्षपात किया है।

सेक्सन्स के बाद एंग्ल्स पहुंचे जो जूट्स और सेक्सन्स की तरह ही लड़ाके तथा लुटेरे थे। सन् 613 ई० में नार्थम्ब्रिया के एंग्ल राजा ने ब्रिटेन पर आक्रमण करके विजय प्राप्त की। इसके बाद इन्हीं एगल्स के नाम पर ब्रिटेन का नाम इंग्लैंड हो गया। ये एंगल्स लोग भी जाट थे जैसा कि पिछले पृष्ठों पर लिखा गया है। इंग्लैंड में रहने वालों को अंग्रेज कहा गया।

एंगल्स लोग संख्या में दूसरों से अधिक थे इसी कारण से ब्रिटेन को एंगल्स की भूमि एवं इंग्लैंड कहा गया। इस तरह से ब्रिटेन पर जूट्स, सेक्सन्स और एंगल्स का अधिकार हो गया। इसी को ब्रिटेन पर अंग्रेजों की जीत कहा जाता है। इन तीनों कबीलों ने अपने अलग-अलग राज्य स्थापित किए। जूट्स ने केण्ट (Kent); सैक्सन्स ने सस्सेक्स (Sussex), एस्सेक्स (Essex), वेसेक्स (Wessex) और एंगल्स ने ईस्ट एंगलिया (East Anglia), मर्शिया (Mercia) और नार्थम्ब्रिया (Northumbria) के राज्य स्थापित किये। ये सातों राज्य सामूहिक रूप से हेपटार्की कहलाते थे। परन्तु ये राज्य स्वतन्त्र नहीं थे। इन सातों में जो शक्तिशाली होता था वह दूसरों का शासक बन जाता था।

ऊपर कहे हुए तीनों कबीले संगठित नहीं थे। नॉरमनों ने जब तक इस देश को नहीं जीता, इंग्लैंड में शक्तिशाली केन्द्रीय राज्य की स्थापना नहीं हो सकी। इन कबीलों ने देश से क्रिश्चियन धर्म और रोमन सभ्यता को मिटा दिया। आधुनिक इंग्लैंड एंग्लो-सैक्सन्स का बनाया हुआ है। आधुनिक अंग्रेज किसी न किसी रूप में इंग्लो-सैक्सन्स के ही वंशज हैं।

अंग्रेज जाति की उत्पत्ति और बनावट के सम्बन्ध में दो प्रतिद्वन्द्वी सिद्धान्त हैं।

  1. पलग्रोव, पियरसन और सेछम आदि प्रवीण मनुष्य रोमन केल्टिक सिद्धान्त को मानते हैं। उनका यह विचार है कि आधुनिक इंग्लैंड में रोमन-केल्टिक रक्त और संस्थाएं मौजूद हैं।
  2. ग्रीन और स्टब्स जैसे दूसरे प्रवीन मनुष्य ट्यूटानिक सिद्धान्त को मानते हैं। उनका यह विचार है कि ट्यूटानिक अर्थात् जूट, एंगल, सैक्सन और डेन लोगों का रक्त और संस्थाएं बहुत कुछ आधुनिक इंग्लैंड में पाई जाती हैं। इन दोनों में से ट्यूटानिक सिद्धान्त अधिक माना जाता
1. आधार लेख - इंग्लैण्ड का इतिहास पृ० 16-17, लेखक प्रो० विशनदास; ए हिस्ट्री ऑफ ब्रिटेन पृ० 21-22, लेखक रामकुमार लूथरा; अनटिक्विटी ऑफ जाट रेस, पृ० 63-66, लेखक: उजागरसिंह माहिल; जाट्स दी ऐन्शन्ट रूलर्ज पृ० 86 लेखक: बी० एस० दहिया तथा जाट इतिहास अंग्रेजी पृ० 43, लेखक ले० रामसरूप जून।

जाट वीरों का इतिहास: दलीप सिंह अहलावत, पृष्ठान्त-400

है और आमतौर पर यह स्वीकार किया जाता है कि ब्रिटिश जाति मिले-जुले लोगों की जाति है। जिनमें ट्यूटानिक तत्त्व प्रधान है, जबकि केल्टिक तत्त्व भी पश्चिम में और आयरलैंड में बहुत कुछ बचा हुआ है1।

इसका सार यह है कि इंगलैंड द्वीपसमूह के मनुष्यों की रगों में आज भी अधिकतर जाट रक्त बह रहा है। क्योंकि केल्टिक आर्य लोग तथा जूट, एंगल, सैक्सन और डेन लोग जाटवंशज थे। आज भी वहां पर अनेक जाटगोत्रों के मनुष्य विद्यमान हैं जो कि धर्म से ईसाई हैं।

References

List of References
  1. ↑ Sherley-Price, Leo (1990). Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044565-X. p.63
  2. ↑ Mallory, J. P. (2005). In Search of the Indo-Europeans. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27616-1. p. 135.
  3. ↑ Mallory, J. P. (2005). In Search of the Indo-Europeans. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27616-1. p. 135.
  4. ↑ Mallory, J. P. (2005). In Search of the Indo-Europeans. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27616-1. p. 135.
  5. ↑ Tolkien, J. R. R. (2006). Bliss, Alan (ed.). Finn and Hengest. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-261-10355-5. p. 173
  6. ↑ Sherley-Price, Leo (1990). Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044565-X. p.63
  7. ↑ Ingram, James Henry (1823). The Saxon chronicle, with an English Translation and Notes, Critical and Explanatory. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, Paternoster-Row. pp.13-14
  8. ↑ Gunn, William (1819). Historia Brittonum. London: Printed for John and Arthur Arch, Cornhill. 15-16
  9. ↑ Gunn, William (1819). Historia Brittonum. London: Printed for John and Arthur Arch, Cornhill. p. 18
  10. ↑ Gunn (1819:22).
  11. ↑ Gunn (1819:22–23).
  12. ↑ Gunn (1819:23–24).
  13. ↑ Gunn (1819:29).
  14. ↑ Gunn (1819:30–31).
  15. ↑ Gunn (1819:31–32).
  16. ↑ Gunn (1819:33).
  17. ↑ Gunn (1819:34).
  18. ↑ Faulkes, Anthony (1995). Edda. Everyman. ISBN 0-460-87616-3. p.4
  19. ↑ Simek, Rudolf (2007). Dictionary of Northern Mythology. Translated by Angela Hall. D.S. Brewer. ISBN 978-0-85991-513-7.p.139
  20. ↑ West, Martin Litchfield (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9. p. 190
  21. ↑ The Jats:Their Origin, Antiquity and Migrations/The Scythic origin of the Jats,p.176
  22. ↑ Qanungo, K.R.; His of Jats, pp. 377.
  23. ↑ MacMann, George; The Martial Races of Ind., Delhi, 1969, p. 14, Carter, E.H. & Mears, R.A.F.; His. of Eng., pp. 27ff. Ujagar Singh Mahil, Antiquity of Jat Race, pp. 9-14.
  24. ↑ Op.cit., Vol. I, p. 88. (within brackets mine).
  25. ↑ History and study of the Jats/Chapter 6, pp.97-98
  26. ↑ Jute. In Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary, Canadian Edition, Lexicon Publications. Inc.. New York. 1988, pp. 532.
  27. ↑ Tod. J. (Lt. Col.). Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.. London. 1972. pp. 51. 89. first published in 1829.
  28. ↑ Wilson, D.H. (Professor), A History of England. The Dryden Press. Inc., Hinsdale. Illinois. 1972, pp. 15.
  29. ↑ Wilson, D.H. (Professor), A History of England. The Dryden Press. Inc., Hinsdale. Illinois. 1972, pp. 15.
  30. ↑ Bachrach, B.S., A History of the Huns in the West, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1973, pp. 90, 1-25,59,52.
  31. ↑ Shore. T.W.. The Jutes, Goths, and Northmen (Chapter IV) and the Jutish Settlers In Kent (Chapter XI). In Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race, Kennikat Press, London. 1971, pp. 49-65. 181-195.
  32. ↑ Shore. T.W.. The Jutes, Goths, and Northmen (Chapter IV) and the Jutish Settlers In Kent (Chapter XI). In Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race, Kennikat Press, London. 1971, pp. 49-65. 181-195.
  33. ↑ Shore. T.W.. The Jutes, Goths, and Northmen (Chapter IV) and the Jutish Settlers In Kent (Chapter XI). In Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race, Kennikat Press, London. 1971, pp. 49-65. 181-195.
  34. ↑ Shore. T.W.. The Jutes, Goths, and Northmen (Chapter IV) and the Jutish Settlers In Kent (Chapter XI). In Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race, Kennikat Press, London. 1971, pp. 49-65. 181-195.
  35. ↑ Shore. T.W.. The Jutes, Goths, and Northmen (Chapter IV) and the Jutish Settlers In Kent (Chapter XI). In Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race, Kennikat Press, London. 1971, pp. 49-65. 181-195.
  36. ↑ Barstow, A.E. (Major), The Sikhs: An Ethnology, reprinted by B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi, India, 1985, pp. 152-155, 66, 89, first published In 1928.
  37. ↑ Ammianus. Marcellinus (born around A.D. 330). Translated by J.C. Rolfe. Vol. 3. Harvard University Press. Cambridge. Massachusetts, 1956. pp. 387-395.
  38. ↑ Ammianus. Marcellinus (born around A.D. 330). Translated by J.C. Rolfe. Vol. 3. Harvard University Press. Cambridge. Massachusetts, 1956. pp. 387-395.
  39. ↑ Talbot-Rice, T., The Scythians, F.A. Praeger, New York, 1961, pp. 43-44,145, 70.
  40. ↑ Jolliffee. J.E.A.. Pre-Feudal England: The Jutes, Oxford University Press. London. 1962. pp. 19-20. 104.
  41. ↑ Shore. T.W.. The Jutes, Goths, and Northmen (Chapter IV) and the Jutish Settlers In Kent (Chapter XI). In Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race, Kennikat Press, London. 1971, pp. 49-65. 181-195.
  42. ↑ MacMunn (Lt. Gen. and Sir). The Martial Races of India. reprinted by Mittal Publications. Deihl. India. 1979. pp. 123. 126. first published in 1932.
  43. ↑ Tod. J. (Lt. Col.). Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.. London, 1972. (reprint & Vol. 1), first published in 1829.
  44. ↑ Bachrach, B.S., A History of the Huns in the West, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1973, pp. 90, 1-25,59,52.
  45. ↑ Leake. J.A.. The Geats of Beowulf. The University of Wisconsin Press. Madison. Wisconsin. 1967, pp. 93-94.
  46. ↑ Sulimirski. T.. The Sarmatians. Praeger Publishers New York. 1970, pp. 27.81. 197, 187.34. 175-176.202-203. 19.
  47. ↑ Jat History Dalip Singh Ahlawat/Chapter IV, p.401
  48. ↑ Ujagar Singh Mahil: Antiquity of Jat Race, p.66-70
  49. ↑ Jat History Dalip Singh Ahlawat/Chapter IV, pp.399-401
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