Slovakia

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Author:Laxman Burdak, IFS (R)
Slovakia and Czech Republic Map
Map of Slovakia

Slovakia (स्लोवाकिया) is a landlocked state in Central Europe.

Origin of name

Slovakia's name in theory means the "Land of the Slavs" (Slovensko in Slovak stemming from the older form Sloven/Slovienin). As such, it is a cognate of the words Slovenia and Slavonia. In medieval Latin, German, and even some Slavic sources, the same name has often been used for Slovaks, Slovenes, Slavonians, and Slavs in general.

Population

It has a population of over five million and an area of about 49,000 square kilometres (19,000 sq mi).

Location

Slovakia is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east and Hungary to the south. The largest city is the capital, Bratislava, and the second largest is Košice.

Formation of state

Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia (चेकोस्लोवाकिया) was a sovereign state in Central Europe that existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until its peaceful dissolution into the Czech Republic and Slovakia on 1 January 1993.

History

The oldest surviving human artefacts from Slovakia are found near Nové Mesto nad Váhom and are dated at 270,000 BCE, in the Early Paleolithic era. These ancient tools, made by the Clactonian technique, bear witness to the ancient habitation of Slovakia.[1]

Other stone tools from the Middle Paleolithic era (200,000–80,000 BCE) come from the Prévôt (Prepoštská) cave in Bojnice and from other nearby sites.[2] The most important discovery from that era is a Neanderthal cranium (c. 200,000 BCE), discovered near Gánovce, a village in northern Slovakia.

Archaeologists have found prehistoric human skeletons in the region, as well as numerous objects and vestiges of the Gravettian culture, principally in the river valleys of Nitra, Hron, Ipeľ, Váh and as far as the city of Žilina, and near the foot of the Vihorlat, Inovec, and Tribeč mountains, as well as in the Myjava Mountains. The most well-known finds include the oldest female statue made of mammoth bone (22,800 BCE), the famous Venus of Moravany. The statue was found in the 1940s in Moravany nad Váhom near Piešťany. Numerous necklaces made of shells from Cypraca thermophile gastropods of the Tertiary period have come from the sites of Zákovská, Podkovice, Hubina, and Radošina. These findings provide the most ancient evidence of commercial exchanges carried out between the Mediterranean and Central Europe.

Bronze Age: During the Bronze Age, the geographical territory of modern-day Slovakia went through three stages of development, stretching from 2000 to 800 BCE. Major cultural, economic, and political development can be attributed to the significant growth in production of copper, especially in central Slovakia (for example in Špania Dolina) and northwest Slovakia. Copper became a stable source of prosperity for the local population.

After the disappearance of the Čakany and Velatice cultures, the Lusatian people expanded building of strong and complex fortifications, with the large permanent buildings and administrative centres. Excavations of Lusatian hill forts document the substantial development of trade and agriculture at that period. The richness and diversity of tombs increased considerably. The inhabitants of the area manufactured arms, shields, jewellery, dishes, and statues.

Iron Age: The arrival of tribes from Thrace disrupted the people of the Kalenderberg culture, who lived in the hamlets located on the plain (Sereď) and in the hill forts like Molpír, near Smolenice, in the Little Carpathians. During Hallstatt times, monumental burial mounds were erected in western Slovakia, with princely equipment consisting of richly decorated vessels, ornaments and decorations. The burial rites consisted entirely of cremation. Common people were buried in flat urnfield cemeteries.

A special role was given to weaving and the production of textiles. The local power of the "Princes" of the Hallstatt period disappeared in Slovakia during the century before the middle of first millennium BC, after strife between the Scytho-Thracian people and locals, resulting in abandonment of the old hill-forts. Relatively depopulated areas soon caught the interest of emerging Celtic tribes, who advanced from the south towards the north, following the Slovak rivers, peacefully integrating into the remnants of the local population.

La Tène Period: From around 500 BCE, the territory of modern-day Slovakia was settled by Celts, who built powerful oppida on the sites of modern-day Bratislava and Devín. Biatecs, silver coins with inscriptions in the Latin alphabet, represent the first known use of writing in Slovakia. At the northern regions, remnants of the local population of Lusatian origin, together with Celtic and later Dacian influence, gave rise to the unique Púchov culture, with advanced crafts and iron-working, many hill-forts and fortified settlements of central type with the coinage of the "Velkobysterecky" type (no inscriptions, with a horse on one side and a head on the other). This culture is often connected with the Celtic tribe mentioned in Roman sources as Cotini.

Roman Period: From 2 AD, the expanding Roman Empire established and maintained a series of outposts around and just south of the Danube, the largest of which were known as Carnuntum (whose remains are on the main road halfway between Vienna and Bratislava) and Brigetio (present-day Szőny at the Slovak-Hungarian border). Such Roman border settlements were built on the present area of Rusovce, currently a suburb of Bratislava. The military fort was surrounded by a civilian vicus and several farms of the villa rustica type. The name of this settlement was Gerulata. The military fort had an auxiliary cavalry unit, approximately 300 horses strong, modelled after the Cananefates. The remains of Roman buildings have also survived in Stupava, Devín Castle, Bratislava Castle Hill, and the Bratislava-Dúbravka suburb.

Near the northernmost line of the Roman hinterlands, the Limes Romanus, there existed the winter camp of Laugaricio (modern-day Trenčín) where the Auxiliary of Legion II fought and prevailed in a decisive battle over the Germanic Quadi tribe in 179 CE during the Marcomannic Wars. The Kingdom of Vannius, a kingdom founded by the Germanic Suebi tribes of Quadi and Marcomanni, as well as several small Germanic and Celtic tribes, including the Osi and Cotini, existed in western and central Slovakia from 8–6 BCE to 179 CE.

Great invasions from the fourth to seventh centuries: In the second and third centuries AD, the Huns began to leave the Central Asian steppes. They crossed the Danube in 377 AD and occupied Pannonia, which they used for 75 years as their base for launching looting-raids into Western Europe. However, Attila's death in 453 brought about the disappearance of the Hunnic empire. In 568, a Turko-Mongol tribal confederacy, the Avars, conducted its invasion into the Middle Danube region. The Avars occupied the lowlands of the Pannonian Plain and established an empire dominating the Carpathian Basin.

In 623, the Slavic population living in the western parts of Pannonia seceded from their empire after a revolution led by Samo, a Frankish merchant.[3] After 626, the Avar power started a gradual decline[4] but its reign lasted to 804.

Slavic states: The Slavic tribes settled in the territory of present-day Slovakia in the fifth century. Western Slovakia was the centre of Samo's empire in the seventh century. A Slavic state known as the Principality of Nitra arose in the eighth century and its ruler Pribina had the first known Christian church of the territory of present-day Slovakia consecrated by 828. Together with neighbouring Moravia, the principality formed the core of the Great Moravian Empire from 833. The high point of this Slavonic empire came with the arrival of Saints Cyril and Methodius in 863, during the reign of Duke Rastislav, and the territorial expansion under King Svätopluk I.

Great Moravia (830–before 907): Great Moravia arose around 830 when Mojmír I unified the Slavic tribes settled north of the Danube and extended the Moravian supremacy over them.[5] When Mojmír I endeavoured to secede from the supremacy of the king of East Francia in 846, King Louis the German deposed him and assisted Mojmír's nephew Rastislav (846–870) in acquiring the throne.[6] The new monarch pursued an independent policy: after stopping a Frankish attack in 855, he also sought to weaken the influence of Frankish priests preaching in his realm. Duke Rastislav asked the Byzantine Emperor Michael III to send teachers who would interpret Christianity in the Slavic vernacular.

Upon Rastislav's request, two brothers, Byzantine officials and missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius came in 863. Cyril developed the first Slavic alphabet and translated the Gospel into the Old Church Slavonic language. Rastislav was also preoccupied with the security and administration of his state. Numerous fortified castles built throughout the country are dated to his reign and some of them (e.g., Dowina, sometimes identified with Devín Castle)[7] are also mentioned in connection with Rastislav by Frankish chronicles.

During Rastislav's reign, the Principality of Nitra was given to his nephew Svätopluk as an appanage.[8] The rebellious prince allied himself with the Franks and overthrew his uncle in 870. Similarly to his predecessor, Svätopluk I (871–894) assumed the title of the king (rex). During his reign, the Great Moravian Empire reached its greatest territorial extent, when not only present-day Moravia and Slovakia but also present-day northern and central Hungary, Lower Austria, Bohemia, Silesia, Lusatia, southern Poland and northern Serbia belonged to the empire, but the exact borders of his domains are still disputed by modern authors.[9] Svatopluk also withstood attacks of the Magyar tribes and the Bulgarian Empire, although sometimes it was he who hired the Magyars when waging war against East Francia.

In 880, Pope John VIII set up an independent ecclesiastical province in Great Moravia with Archbishop Methodius as its head. He also named the German cleric Wiching the Bishop of Nitra.

After the death of Prince Svatopluk in 894, his sons Mojmír II (894–906?) and Svatopluk II succeeded him as the Prince of Great Moravia and the Prince of Nitra respectively.[25] However, they started to quarrel for domination of the whole empire. Weakened by an internal conflict as well as by constant warfare with Eastern Francia, Great Moravia lost most of its peripheral territories.

In the meantime, the semi-nomadic Magyar tribes, possibly having suffered defeat from the similarly nomadic Pechenegs, left their territories east of the Carpathian Mountains,[30] invaded the Carpathian Basin and started to occupy the territory gradually around 896.[31] Their armies' advance may have been promoted by continuous wars among the countries of the region whose rulers still hired them occasionally to intervene in their struggles.[10]

It is not known what happened with both Mojmír II and Svatopluk II because they are not mentioned in written sources after 906. In three battles (4–5 July and 9 August 907) near Bratislava, the Magyars routed Bavarian armies. Some historians put this year as the date of the break-up of the Great Moravian Empire, due to the Hungarian conquest; other historians take the date a little bit earlier (to 902).

Great Moravia left behind a lasting legacy in Central and Eastern Europe. The Glagolitic script and its successor Cyrillic were disseminated to other Slavic countries, charting a new path in their sociocultural development. The administrative system of Great Moravia may have influenced the development of the administration of the Kingdom of Hungary.

Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1918): Following the disintegration of the Great Moravian Empire at the turn of the tenth century, the Hungarians annexed the territory comprising modern Slovakia. After their defeat on the river Lech, the Hungarians abandoned their nomadic ways and settled in the centre of the Carpathian valley, slowly adopting Christianity and began to build a new state — the Hungarian kingdom.[11] Slovaks seemed to play an important role during the development of the realm. as evident by large number of loanwords into Hungarian language, concerning primarily economical, agricultural or metallurgy fields.[12]

In the years 1001–1102 and 1018–1029, Slovakia was part of the Kingdom of Poland, having been conquered by Boleslaus I the Brave.[13] After the territory of Slovakia was returned to Hungary, a semi-autonomous polity continued to exist (or was created in 1048 by king Andrew I) called Duchy of Nitra. Comprising roughly the territory of Principality of Nitra and Bihar principality, they formed what was called a tercia pars regni, third of a kingdom.[14] It used to be ruled by would-be successors to the throne from the house of Arpád. Interestingly, in the Hungarian-Polish chronicle from 13th century, the ruler of said duchy, duke Emeric (son of Stephen I of Hungary), is called "Henricus dux Sclavonie", in essence - duke of Slovakia.[15]

This polity existed up until 1108/1110, after which it was not restored. After this, until the year 1918, when the Austro-Hungarian empire collapsed, the territory of Slovakia was an integral part of the Hungarian state.[16] The ethnic composition of Slovakia became more diverse with the arrival of the Carpathian Germans in the 13th century and the Jews in the 14th century.

A significant decline in the population resulted from the invasion of the Mongols in 1241 and the subsequent famine. However, in medieval times the area of Slovakia was characterised by German and Jewish immigration, burgeoning towns, construction of numerous stone castles, and the cultivation of the arts.[17] The arrival of German element sometimes proved a problem for the autochthonous Slovaks (and even Hungarians in the broader Hungary), since they often quickly gained most power in medieval towns, only to later refuse to share it. Breaking of old customs by Germans often resulted in national quarrels. One of which had to be sorted out by the king Louis I. with the proclamation Privilegium pro Slavis (Privilege for Slovaks) in the year 1381. According to this privilege, Slovaks and Germans were to occupy each half of the seats in the city council of Žilina and the mayor should be elected each year, alternating between those nationalities. This would not be last such case.[18]

One of the commanders of a Slovak volunteers' army captain Ján Francisci-Rimavský during the fight for independence from the Kingdom of Hungary

In 1465, King Matthias Corvinus founded the Hungarian Kingdom's third university, in Pressburg (Bratislava), but it was closed in 1490 after his death.[19] Hussites also settled in the region after the Hussite Wars.[20]

Owing to the Ottoman Empire's expansion into Hungarian territory, Bratislava was designated the new capital of Hungary in 1536, ahead of the fall of the old Hungarian capital of Buda in 1541. It became part of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy, marking the beginning of a new era. The territory comprising modern Slovakia, then known as Upper Hungary, became the place of settlement for nearly two-thirds of the Magyar nobility fleeing the Turks and became far more linguistically and culturally Hungarian than it was before.[21] Partly thanks to old Hussite families and Slovaks studying under Martin Luther, the region then experienced a growth in Protestantism.[44] For a short period in the 17th century, most Slovaks were Lutherans.[22] They defied the Catholic Habsburgs and sought protection from neighbouring Transylvania, a rival continuation of the Magyar state that practised religious tolerance and normally had Ottoman backing. Upper Hungary, modern Slovakia, became the site of frequent wars between Catholics in the west territory and Protestants in the east, as well as against Turks; the frontier was on a constant state of military alert and heavily fortified by castles and citadels often manned by Catholic German and Slovak troops on the Habsburg side. By 1648, Slovakia was not spared the Counter-Reformation, which brought the majority of its population from Lutheranism back to Roman Catholicism. In 1655, the printing press at the Trnava university produced the Jesuit Benedikt Szöllősi's Cantus Catholici, a Catholic hymnal in Slovak that reaffirmed links to the earlier works of Cyril and Methodius.

The Ottoman wars, the rivalry between Austria and Transylvania, and the frequent insurrections against the Habsburg monarchy inflicted a great deal of devastation, especially in the rural areas.[45] In the Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664) a Turkish army led by the Grand Vizier decimated Slovakia.[23] Even so, Thököly's kuruc rebels from the Principality of Upper Hungary fought alongside the Turks against the Austrians and Poles at the Battle of Vienna of 1683 led by John III Sobieski. As the Turks withdrew from Hungary in the late 17th century, the importance of the territory composing modern Slovakia decreased, although Pressburg retained its status as the capital of Hungary until 1848 when it was transferred back to Buda.[24]

During the revolution of 1848–49, the Slovaks supported the Austrian Emperor, hoping for independence from the Hungarian part of the Dual Monarchy, but they failed to achieve their aim. Thereafter relations between the nationalities deteriorated (see Magyarisation), culminating in the secession of Slovakia from Hungary after World War I.[25]

Czechoslovakia (1918–1939): On 18 October 1918, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Milan Rastislav Štefánik and Edvard Beneš declared in Washington, D.C. the independence for the territories of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper Hungary and Carpathian Ruthenia from the Austro-Hungarian Empire and proclaimed a common state, Czechoslovakia. In 1919, during the chaos following the break-up of Austria-Hungary, Czechoslovakia was formed with numerous Germans, Slovaks, Hungarians and Ruthenians within the newly set borders. The borders were set by the Treaty of Saint Germain and Treaty of Trianon. In the peace following the World War, Czechoslovakia emerged as a sovereign European state. It provided what were at the time rather extensive rights to its minorities.

During the Interwar period, democratic Czechoslovakia was allied with France, and also with Romania and Yugoslavia (Little Entente); however, the Locarno Treaties of 1925 left East European security open. Both Czechs and Slovaks enjoyed a period of relative prosperity. There was progress in not only the development of the country's economy but also culture and educational opportunities. Yet the Great Depression caused a sharp economic downturn, followed by political disruption and insecurity in Europe.[26]

In the 1930s Czechoslovakia came under continuous pressure from the revisionist governments of Germany, Hungary and Poland who used the aggrieved minorities in the country as a useful vehicle. Revision of the borders was called for, as Czechs constituted only 43% of the population. Eventually, this pressure led to the Munich Agreement of September 1938, which allowed the majority ethnic Germans in the Sudetenland, borderlands of Czechoslovakia, to join with Germany. The remaining minorities stepped up their pressures for autonomy and the State became federalised, with Diets in Slovakia and Ruthenia. The remainder of Czechoslovakia was renamed Czecho-Slovakia and promised a greater degree of Slovak political autonomy. This, however, failed to materialise.[27] Parts of southern and eastern Slovakia were also reclaimed by Hungary at the First Vienna Award of November 1938.

जाटों का शासन

दलीप सिंह अहलावत[28] ने लिखा है.... ययाति महाराज जम्बूद्वीप के सम्राट् थे। जम्बूद्वीप आज का एशिया समझो। यह मंगोलिया से सीरिया तक और साइबेरिया से भारतवर्ष शामिल करके था। इसके बीच के सब देश शामिल करके जम्बूद्वीप कहलाता था। कानपुर से तीन मील पर जाजपुर स्थान के किले का ध्वंसावशेष आज भी ‘ययाति के कोट’ नाम पर प्रसिद्ध है। राजस्थान में सांभर झील के पास एक ‘देवयानी’ नामक कुंवा है जिसमें शर्मिष्ठा ने वैरवश देवयानी को धकेल दिया था, जिसको ययाति ने बाहर निकाल लिया था[29]। इस प्रकार ययाति राज्य के चिह्न आज भी विद्यमान हैं।

महाराजा ययाति का पुत्र पुरु अपने पिता का सेवक व आज्ञाकारी था, इसी कारण ययाति ने पुरु को राज्य भार दिया। परन्तु शेष पुत्रों को भी राज्य से वंचित न रखा। वह बंटवारा इस प्रकार था -

1. यदु को दक्षिण का भाग (जिसमें हिमाचल प्रदेश, पंजाब, हरयाणा, राजस्थान, दिल्ली तथा इन प्रान्तों से लगा उत्तर प्रदेश, गुजरात एवं कच्छ हैं)।

2. तुर्वसु को पश्चिम का भाग (जिसमें आज पाकिस्तान, अफगानिस्तान, ईरान, इराक, सऊदी अरब,यमन, इथियोपिया, केन्या, सूडान, मिश्र, लिबिया, अल्जीरिया, तुर्की, यूनान हैं)।

3. द्रुहयु को दक्षिण पूर्व का भाग दिया।

4. अनु को उत्तर का भाग (इसमें उत्तरदिग्वाची[30] सभी देश हैं) दिया। आज के हिमालय पर्वत से लेकर उत्तर में चीन, मंगोलिया, रूस, साइबेरिया, उत्तरी ध्रुव आदि सभी इस में हैं।

5. पुरु को सम्राट् पद पर अभिषेक कर, बड़े भाइयों को उसके अधीन रखकर ययाति वन में चला गया[31]। यदु से यादव क्षत्रिय उत्पन्न हुए। तुर्वसु की सन्तान यवन कहलाई। द्रुहयु के पुत्र भोज नाम से प्रसिद्ध हुए। अनु से म्लेच्छ जातियां उत्पन्न हुईं। पुरु से पौरव वंश चला[32]।

जब हम जाटों की प्राचीन निवास भूमि का वर्णन पढते हैं तो कुभा (काबुल) और कृमि (कुर्रम) नदी उसकी पच्छिमी सीमायें, तिब्बत की पर्वतमाला पूर्वी सीमा, जगजार्टिस और अक्सस नदी

जाट वीरों का इतिहास: दलीप सिंह अहलावत, पृष्ठान्त-185

उत्तरी सीमा और नर्मदा नदी दक्षिणी सीमा बनाती है। वास्तव में यह देश उन आर्यों का है जो चन्द्रवंशी अथवा यदु, द्रुहयु, तुर्वसु, कुरु और पुरु कहलाते थे। भगवान् श्रीकृष्ण के सिद्धान्तों को इनमें से प्रायः सभी ने अपना लिया था। अतः समय अनुसार वे सब जाट कहलाने लग गये। इन सभी खानदानों की पुराणों ने स्पष्ट और अस्पष्ट निन्दा ही की है। या तो इन्होंने आरम्भ से ही ब्राह्मणों के बड़प्पन को स्वीकार नहीं किया था या बौद्ध-काल में ये प्रायः सभी बौद्ध हो गये थे। वाह्लीक,तक्षक, कुशान, शिव, मल्ल, क्षुद्रक (शुद्रक), नव आदि सभी खानदान जिनका महाभारत और बौद्धकाल में नाम आता है वे इन्हीं यदु, द्रुहयु, कुरु और पुरुओं के उत्तराधिकारी (शाखायें) हैं[33]।

सम्राट् ययातिपुत्र यदु और यादवों के वंशज जाटों का इस भूमि पर लगभग एक अरब चौरानवें करोड़ वर्ष से शासन है। यदु के वंशज कुछ समय तो यदु के नाम से प्रसिद्ध रहे थे, किन्तु भाषा में ‘य’ को ‘ज’ बोले जाने के कारण जदु-जद्दू-जट्टू-जाट कहलाये। कुछ लोगों ने अपने को ‘यायात’ (ययातेः पुत्राः यायाताः) कहना आरम्भ किया जो ‘जाजात’ दो समानाक्षरों का पास ही में सन्निवेश हो तो एक नष्ट हो जाता है। अतः जात और फिर जाट हुआ। तीसरी शताब्दी में इन यायातों का जापान पर अधिकार था (विश्वकोश नागरी प्र० खं० पृ० 467)। ये ययाति के वंशधर भारत में आदि क्षत्रिय हैं जो आज जाट कहे जाते हैं। भारतीय व्याकरण के अभाव में शुद्धाशुद्ध पर विचार न था। अतः यदोः को यदो ही उच्चारण सुनकर संस्कृत में स्त्रीलिंग के कारण उसे यहुदी कहना आरम्भ किया, जो फिर बदलकर लोकमानस में यहूदी हो गया। यहूदी जन्म से होता है, कर्म से नहीं। यह सिद्धान्त भी भारतीय धारा का है। ईसा स्वयं यहूदी था। वर्त्तमान ईसाई मत यहूदी धर्म का नवीन संस्करण मात्र है। बाइबिल अध्ययन से यह स्पष्ट है कि वह भारतीय संसकारों का अधूरा अनुवाद मात्र है।

अब यह सिद्ध हो गया कि जर्मनी, इंग्लैंण्ड, स्काटलैण्ड, नार्वे, स्वीडन, रूस, चेकोस्लोवाकिया आदि अर्थात् पूरा यूरोप और एशिया के मनुष्य ययाति के पौत्रों का परिवार है। जम्बूद्वीप, जो आज एशिया कहा जाता है, इसके शासक जाट थे[34]।

External links

References

  1. ↑ Neruda, Petr; Kaminská, L.ubomira (2013). Neanderthals at Bojnice in the Context of Central Europe. p. 21. ISBN 978-80-7028-407-0.
  2. ↑ Museum of Prehistoric Prepoštská Cave (2011). "Museum of Prehistoric". muzeumpraveku.sk.
  3. ↑ Benda, Kálmán (1981). Magyarország történeti kronológiája ("The Historical Chronology of Hungary"). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 44. ISBN 963-05-2661-1.
  4. ↑ Kristó, Gyula (1994). Korai Magyar Történeti Lexikon (9–14. század) [Encyclopedia of Early Hungarian History – 9th–14th centuries]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 467. ISBN 963-05-6722-9, p.30–31
  5. ↑ Kristó, Gyula (1994). Korai Magyar Történeti Lexikon (9–14. század) [Encyclopedia of Early Hungarian History – 9th–14th centuries]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 467. ISBN 963-05-6722-9.
  6. ↑ Kristó, Gyula (1994). Korai Magyar Történeti Lexikon (9–14. század) [Encyclopedia of Early Hungarian History – 9th–14th centuries]. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 467. ISBN 963-05-6722-9.
  7. ↑ Poulik, Josef (1978). "The Origins of Christianity in Slavonic Countries North of the Middle Danube Basin". World Archaeology. 10 (2): 158–171. doi:10.1080/00438243.1978.9979728.
  8. ↑ Čaplovič, Dušan; Viliam Čičaj; Dušan Kováč; Ľubomír Lipták; Ján Lukačka (2000). Dejiny Slovenska. Bratislava: AEP.
  9. ↑ Tóth, Sándor László (1998). Levediától a Kárpát-medencéig ("From Levedia to the Carpathian Basin"). Szeged: Szegedi Középkorász Műhely. p. 199. ISBN 963-482-175-8.
  10. ↑ Kristó, Gyula (1996). Magyar honfoglalás – honfoglaló magyarok ("The Hungarians' Occupation of their Country – The Hungarians occupying their Country"). Kossuth Könyvkiadó. pp. 84–85. ISBN 963-09-3836-7.
  11. ↑ "The kingdom of Hungary". loststory.net.
  12. ↑ Marek, Miloš (17 August 2021). "Národnosti Uhorska" (PDF)
  13. ↑ Ottov historický atlas Slovensko. Pavol Kršák, Daniel Gurňák. Praha: Ottovo Nakladatelství. 2012. ISBN 978-80-7360-834-7. OCLC 827000163.
  14. ↑ Steinhübel, Ján (2016). Nitrianské kniežatstvo : počiatky stredovekého Slovenska = The duchy of Nitra, the beginnings of the medieval Slovakia (Druhé prepracované a doplnené vydanie ed.). Bratislava. ISBN 978-80-85501-64-3. OCLC 966315215.
  15. ↑ "História - Revue o dejinách spoločnosti | historiarevue.sk". www.historiarevue.sk.
  16. ↑ Felak, James Ramon (15 June 1995). At the Price of the Republic: Hlinka's Slovak People's Party, 1929–1938. University of Pittsburgh Pre. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-8229-7694-3.
  17. ↑ Tibenský, Ján; et al. (1971). Slovensko: Dejiny. Bratislava: Obzor.
  18. ↑ Žilina v slovenských dejinách : zborník z vedeckej konferencie k 620. výročiu udelenia výsad pre žilinských Slovákov : Žilina 7. mája 2001. Richard Marsina. Žilina: Knižné Centrum Vyd. 2002. ISBN 80-8064-158-7. OCLC 164889878.
  19. ↑ "Academia Istropolitana". City of Bratislava.
  20. ↑ Mahoney, William (18 February 2011). The History of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313363061
  21. ↑ Mahoney, William (18 February 2011). The History of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313363061
  22. ↑ Mahoney, William (18 February 2011). The History of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313363061
  23. ↑ Mahoney, William (18 February 2011). The History of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313363061
  24. ↑ Bratislava. Slovakiasite.com
  25. ↑ "Divided Memories: The Image of the First World War in the Historical Memory of Slovaks". Slovak Sociological Review, Issue 3. 2003.
  26. ↑ J. V. Polisencky, History of Czechoslovakia in Outline (Prague: Bohemia International 1947) at 113–114.
  27. ↑ Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919-1939 edited by Professor E. L. Woodward, Roham Butler, M.A., and Margaret Lambert, PhD., Third Series, vol.iv, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1951, pps:94-99: 'Memorandum on the Present Political Situation in Slovakia'.
  28. ↑ Jat History Dalip Singh Ahlawat/Chapter III, p.185-186
  29. ↑ महाभारत आदिपर्व 78वां अध्याय, श्लोक 1-24.
  30. ↑ ये वे देश हैं जो पाण्डव दिग्विजय में अर्जुन ने उत्तर दिशा के सभी देशों को जीत लिया था। इनका पूर्ण वर्णन महाभारत सभापर्व अध्याय 26-28 में देखो।
  31. ↑ जाट इतिहास पृ० 14-15 लेखक श्रीनिवासाचार्य महाराज ।
  32. ↑ हाभारत आदिपर्व 85वां अध्याय श्लोक 34-35, इन पांच भाइयों की सन्तान शुद्ध क्षत्रिय आर्य थी जिनसे अनेक जाट गोत्र प्रचलित हुए । (लेखक)
  33. ↑ जाट इतिहास (उत्पत्ति और गौरव खण्ड) पृ० 146-47 ले० ठा० देशराज।
  34. ↑ जाट इतिहास पृ० 14-18 लेखक श्रीनिवासाचार्य महाराज ।
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