Mahabalipuram

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Mahabalipuram (महाबलीपुरम्), also known as Mamallapuram, is a town in Chengalpattu district in the southeastern Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Mamallapuram was one of two major port cities by the 7th century within the Pallava kingdom. It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1984. [1] Author visited the Mahabalipuram on 6.1.1982 and again on 16.12.2007. Images of both times provided in the Gallery.

Variants

Location

Mahabalipuram is located on the east coast of India. It is situated at a distance of 60 km from Chennai in south direction.

Origin of name

The town Mahabalipuram was named after Pallava king Narasimhavarman I, who was also known as Mamalla. [3] The modern name Mahabalipuram is derived from Māmallapuram, 'the city of Māmall', a title of Narasimhavarman I (circa 630-70), the great Pallava ruler of the seventh century, who was responsible for most of the rock-cut temples and carvings at the place. [4] Mahabalipuram is in no way connected with Mahabali, the mythical demon suppressed by the god Vishnu.[5]

Jat clans

History

Being Improved and Expanded

Reference:- Following text is from book - 'Mahabalipuram' by C. Sivaramamurti, sixth edition, published by the Director General Archaeological Survey Of India, New Delhi, 2004, p.2-36

[p.2]: Once a sleeply village, now Mahabalipurarn is a buzzing place. Nevertheless, the ancient tradition of stone carving is still alive here. The visitors can not only shop around but also witness the actual technique of stone carving, be it with some modern powered tools, or the rhythmic sounds of hammer and chisels.

UNESCO has inscribed these group of monuments in the World Heritage List. The monuments remain open between 08.00 hrs to 18.00 hrs. Entry fee is Rs. 10/- for Indians above fifteen years of age and US $ 5 or Rs. 250/- for foreigners above fifteen years of age. Photography using still cameras without stand, with sychronised flash is permitted. Videography using hand held video cameras is permitted on paying a fee of Rs. 25/- as of now, after filling a simple form available at the ticket counters. Other forms of photography/videography require permission from the Superintending Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India, Chennai Circle, Fort St. George, Chennai-600 009.

Ancient names of Mahabalipuram: [p.3]: Mahabalipuram has been famous as a Sea-Port even from the beginning of the Christian era. A work called the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea by an unknown Greek navigator of the first century AD refers to it along with Poduke (modern Pondicherry) as a port north of the Kaveri. Ptolemy, a Greek geographer of the next century, refers to it as Malange. The occasional finds of Roman coins and pottery in the neighbourhood testify to its importance as a trailing centre.

Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese traveller of the seventh century, mentions Kanchi as the sea-port of the Pallava rulers of south India, but this is an obvious mistake for Mahabalipuram, Kanchi (modern Kanchipuram) being situated inland.

The modern name Mahabalipuram is derived from Māmallapuram, 'the city of Māmall', a title of Narasimhavarman I (circa 630-70), the great Pallava ruler of the seventh century, who was responsible for most of the rock-cut temples and carvings at the place.

But probably the name Mallai or even Mamallai was known earlier and used by early Vaishnava saints.

Another ancient name of the place was Kadalmallai referred to by the Vaishnava saint Tirumangaialvar, probably a contemporary of Nandivarman, one of the successors of Narasimhavarman ; he gives a graphic description of the harbour with its anchored ships laden

[p.4]: with treasure, huge elephants and the nine gems. As Mallai, the place is known to be the birth-place of Bhūtattalvar who preceded Tirumangaialvar. Let it be said at once that the name Mahabalipuram is in no way connected with Mahabali, the mythical demon suppres- sed by the god Vishnu, nor with Mahabali dynasty which rose into prominence in south India in about the ninth-tenth centuries.

Of the early European travellers the first to be attracted by these monuments was Manucci, an Italian of the seventeenth century. The present popular name of Seven Pagodas, like the name 'Black Pagoda' for the Sun temple at Konark, is due to the early Europeans in India and was originally applied to the Shore temple (below, p. 29) and the other temples a little inland, the spires of which could be seen from the sea; but local fishermen would have us believe that there were more temples on the shore itself that have gone under the sea within the past few centuries.

The Pallavas

The monuments at Mahabalipuram owe their origin to the Pallava rulers of south India, who came into existence in the third-fourth century and ruled from their capital at Kanchj. From the beginning the Pallavas were a seafaring people who spread Hindu culture in the Indian Archipelago, where the early inscriptions are written in the Pallava-Grantha script and the sculptures show unmistakable affinity with south Indian Pallava culture. Mahabalipuram, the port of the

[p.5]: Pallavas, must have played a great part in the propagation of the Pallava culture outside India.

In the first half of the seventh century the Pallavas suffered a reverse at the hands of the Chalukya monarch Pulakesin II (609-642) who wrested the Telugu districts from them. The contemporary king Mahendravarman I (circa 600-30) had to be contented with a reduced territory extending over the Districts of Chingleput, North Arcot, South Arcot, Thanjavur, Tiruchchirappalli and parts of Salem and Chittoor. Originally a Jaina, , Mahendravarman executed the cave-temple at Sittannavasal (District Tiruchchirappalli) and embellished it with paintings, which are the best examples of Pallava brushwork. Later in his life he was converted to Saivism by the saint Appar; with the zeal of a convert he studded the whole of his kingdom-particularly the Chingleput and North Arcot Districts with rock-cut Siva temples. Particularly important is his rock-temple at Tiruchchirappalli, where a sculptured panel depicting Gangadharamurti is one of the most notable plastic achievements in India.

The name of Mahendravarman has come down in history not only as the pioneer of south Indian temple-architecture and painting but as a poet, dramatist and musician. The Mandagapattu inscription describes him as a curious-minded king, who, discarding perishable materials like brick, timber, metal or mortar for constructing temples, scooped them out of the living rock. The great tank Mahendratataka, one of the most famous irrigation tanks in south India, was excavated by him to help his subjects.

[p.6]: His son Narasimhavarman I, surnamed Mamalla (circa 630-70), was an even greater figure than his father both in war and in peace and was one of the three great Indian rulers of the seventh century, the other two being Pulakesin II of western and Harshavardhana of northern India. Aided by Mānavarman, the refugee-king of Sri Lanka, he inflicted a defeat on Pulakesin and avenged his father's defeat. To help Manavarrnan to regain his throne he sent a large fleet to Sri Lanka which must have started from Mahabalipuram. To his reign belong most of the monuments of Mahabalipuram.

Narasimhavarman II, also called Rajasimha (circa 690-715), associated with his queen Rangapataka, built the Kailashanatha temple at Kanchipuram, the best example of an early Pallava masonry temple. A subsequent king, Nandivarman (circa 717-779), was responsible for the other famous temple at Kanchipuram, the Vaikuntha-perumal. After him came a period of weak succession. The Pallava power was finally overthrown by the Cholas in the ninth century.

The monuments at Mahabalipuram

[p.11]: The monuments at Mahabalipuram can be grouped as follows according to the mode of their construction:

(i) monoliths, i.e., free-standing temples cut out of solid rock, most of which are locally styled rathas or chariots;
(ii) caves, excavated in hill-scarps and used as temples, these being in some cases called mandapas or canopies;
(iii) temples, the term being here used to denote built-up masonry-temples; and
(iv) sculptured scenes, carved on the hill-edges. They illustrate all the styles of Pallava architecture and plastic art (above, pp. 5-9), though the majority belong to the period of Narasimhavarman I.

The visitor is advised to start with the group of the five monoliths in the extreme south, proceed to the north to see the monuments on and at the edge of the hill and finally proceed towards the sea for the Shore temple. If he has time at his disposal, he may as well include the monuments grouped together under 'Miscellaneous' (below, p. 32), some of which are far from the main group of monuments.

The Five Monoliths

This compact group is hewn out of solid rock to form five free-standing monolithic temples (pl. I). The

[p.12]: temples, like many monuments all over the land, are associated, without any historical basis whatsoever, with the five Pandavas of the Mahabharata. They were excavated during the reign of Narasimhavarman I and are the earliest monuments of their kind in India.

Note particularly the different types of super-structure which no doubt illustrate the varieties of contemporary roofing.

Monolith I (Dharmaraja-ratha).-The southernmost temple of the group is also the highest, revealing that the rock utilized for the purpose of making these temples sloped from south to north. The temple is a pyramidal structure with a square base; the upper part consists of a series of diminishing storeys, each having a row of pavilions above a row of kūdus (chairya-windows) arranged immediately above brackets of pilasters which divide the actual portion of the temple into niches with carved images. There are four corner-blocks, each with two panels containing standing figures, between which are two pillars and pilasters supported on squatting lions on all sides except one which has only four pillars. Among the eight sculptured panels on the four corner-blocks, one each represents Harihara, Brahma and Skanda as Gurumurti ; three show four-armed figures of Siva, one of them with elaborate matted hair; and another portrays king Narasimhavarman himself, whose epithets Shri-Megha and Trailokya-vardhana-vidhi are inscribed above the statue in Grantha characters of the time (pl. II A).

[p.13]: The last image, at the back and facing east, is an Ardhanansvara, a combination of Siva and Parvati (pl. II B). The perfect balancing of the masculine features and weapons of the Siva-half and the graceful anatomical details and the sportive lotus in the half-figure of Parvati makes it a most delightful sculpture of the early Pallava age.

The images in the niches in the central tier bear features which become very frequent in later iconography. In the deeply carved central panel in the north, Siva is represented as Gangadhara, four-armed with a rosary in his upper right hand and with the adoring figure of Ganga to his left. To the right of the central panel, Vishnu, carrying a wheel and a conch-shell in his upper pair of arms rests his lower left hand on Garuda, his vehicle, who stoops to support his weight. Beyond this is a panel showing a four-armed Siva dancing on Apasmara-one of the earliest representations of Natesha in the Tamil area, where this form later on became very popular. Beyond this, towards the end, a four-armed Siva, holding a drum and rosary in his upper pair of arms, is shown leaning on his bull in the form known as Vrishabhantikamurti.

In the panel immediately to the left of the central one is perhaps a four-armed Siva resting one of his hands on the shoulder of Arjuna, to whom he presented the Pasupata weapon as a boon. Alternatively, it may be Chandesvara (चण्डेश्वर). It is also possible that the panel represents Siva resting one of his hands on the shoulder of Bharata to whom he enunciated the science of dance. In this case, what he is holding in his hand is a book and not a

[p.14]: weapon or a garland. The next panel shows a four-armed Siva in the company of a dancing attendant who is probably Tandu or Bharata. The last panel is also a representation of four-armed Siva as Vīnadhara-dakshināmurti (वीणाधर-दक्षिणामूर्ति).

Among the corresponding panels on the south, the central one has a figure of standing Vishnu with four arms, carrying the wheel and the conch. The second panel to the right shows Krishna subduing the snake Kaliya represented with three hoods. In the corresponding panel to the left, a four-armed Siva carrying a cobra, trident and axe is shown overcoming the demon Andhaka or probably Yama. Of the four panels which represent Siva, one shows the form of Vinadhara and the other of Natya Dakshinamurti with Bharata or Nandi in human form on whom lie leans.

Among the three figures to the west, the one to-wards the southern end represents the delightful figure of a woman standing with a basket of flowers; the corresponding figure at the other end is that of Siva as Kankalamurti (कंकालमूर्ति), to the left of which is a door-keeper (dvarapala). Here, corresponding to the one below, is a small portico with two pillars, one at either end. To the east adjoining the steps are four panels showing adoring ascetics.

In the east and north of the tier above, is centrally shown a haloed male figure, probably Surya, wearing a crown with decoration resembling superimposed pots (karanda-mukuta) (करण्डमुकुट) and cross-straps (chhannavīra), the right hand carrying a lotus-bud and the left resting just below the hip (katyavalambita) (कट्यवलम्बित). To the south is Siva

[p.15]: wearing a mass of matted hair (jatābhāra) (जटाभार), all the figures being flanked by two devotees on either side. To the west is a deep cell in which there is a representation of four-armed Somāskanda Siva seated at ease with his wife Uma and the baby Skanda and flanked by Brahma and Vishnu.

There are dvarapalas guarding the doorway of the cell. The monkey and human-faced gargoyles arranged all round for the discharge of water from the roof are artistically carved.

Monolith II (Bhima-ratha) .-The next temple with a roof, shaped like the hood of a country-wagon, is elongated on a rectangular base and is supported lengthwise by four pillars and two pilasters. The other ornamentations, false chaitya-windows (kudu) (कूडु) and pavilion, are similar to that of the Dharmaraja-ratha. The curvilinear roof here and in the Draupadi-ratha is at once suggestive of its origin from the thatched hut with covering. The Bhima-ratha contains no paddy-grass figure-carving.

Monolith III (Arjuna-ratha).-The next one, called Arjuna-ratha, is almost a replica of the Dharma-raja-ratha. There are carved panels between pilasters on the four sides of its main body on the ground floor and first storey. Three sides of the main body of the ratha contain five panels each, the central and corner ones being narrower but more prominent. In the corner-panels there are standing figures of dvarapalas. In the central panels are a Siva leaning on Nandi on the south (pl. III) and Indra on Airavata on the east and a Vishnu leaning on Garuda on the north. In the other panels

[p.16]: are mithuna figures or royal couples. One of the panels to the east shows a rishi carrying a staff followed by his disciple. The attempt of the sculptor to represent many of them in full and three-quarters profile shows a mastery of skill. Similar mithunas are also portrayed in the panels of the upper storey. Alternating elephants and lions are carved at the base of this monument all around as supports. The scheme of decoration by means of kudus and pavilions is the same as in the Dharmaraja-ratha.

To the west of the temple projects a portico supported by two pillars and two pilasters of the squatting lion type, of which the pillars are lost. A flight of steps, part or the monolith, leads up to the portico. Immediately above the capitals of the pillars and pilasters and below the kudus is a row of dwarfs (ganas) artistically portrayed in different funny postures. The corresponding row in the upper storey shows a frieze of geese. In the cell of this ratha, guarded by dvarapalas, there used to be a head crowned by trishula similar to the one at the southern end of the wagon-roof of the Ganesa-ratha (below, p. 24). This was obviously intended to represent Siva. Though the horns are lost, they can be reconstructed after those in the Ganesha-ratha. This is no longer shown in the cell.

Behind the ratha is a colossal monolithic couchant Nandi which, even in its semi-finished state, is a master-piece.

Monolith IV (Draupadi-ratha).-The next temple, named after Draupadi, is probably the most elegant in this group. It is supported by four corner-pilasters and has a niche crowned by makara-torana on three sides, while on the west it has two niches containing figures

[p.17]: of dvarapalikas which flank either side of the doorway decorated with makara-torana. The remaining niches each contain a representation of standing Durga, the one on the east resting on the severed head of the buffalo- demon. In the cell inside there is another four-armed standing Durga, adored by two male worshippers kneeling at her feet, one of them brandishing his sword to cut off his head as an offering to the goddess, and four dwarf ganas flying overhead. In front of the ratha is a standing lion.

Monolith V (Nakula Sahadeva-ratha).-The temple named after the twin heroes, Nakula and Sahadeva, is an apsidal one with ornamental features as in the Dharmaraja, Arjuna and other rathas. This extends slightly forward to form a porch supported by two lion-pillars. There are no figure-carvings on this temple. Close to this is a monolithic elephant suggesting the gajaprishthākāra ('elephant-back') shape of the apsidal temple.

The Hill-area

Cave I (Varaha cave) .-A little apart and behind the Mahishamardini cave (below, p. 18) is the Varaha cave, the facade of which is almost completely hidden by an ugly modern building which is usually kept locked and thus prevents the visitor from having a look at the cave. The cave consists of a large hall with a front row of four pillars and two pilasters supported by squatting lions and a back row of two pillars (without lions) and a cell cut in the centre of the back wall. In this

[p.18]: cell is a representation of Varaha raising the earth from the ocean. On the wall of the verandah on either side of the cell are four panels, respectively with a Gaja-Lakshmi seated on lotus and bathed by elephants and attended by nymphs, an eight-armed Mahishamardini towards the extreme end and two representations of Vishnu, one beside each of these two. On the side walls of the verandah are again two panels, one showing a seated king with queens and the other a standing king leading his two queens. The panel of Gaja-Lakshmi is similar to that in the other Varaha cave (below, p. 25). Mahishamardini is represented standing on the cut head of the demon Mahisha. Vishnu in both the panels is adored by two kneeling devotees at his feet and is flanked by dvarapalas, one of whom has snake-hoods above his head-gear suggesting Sesha, the lord of serpents, always associated with the Varaha incarnation of Vishnu. Two other panels here represent Gangadhara and Brahma, the former receiving Ganga on his locks, the strands of which he is supporting with his 'right upper arm. This reminds us of a similar representation in the Tiruchchirappalli cave.

In the interesting group of royal portraits one represents a king seated on a simhasana flanked by his two standing queens (pl. IV A) and the other shows a king dressed in royal robes leading his senior queen followed by the second and pointing his right fore- finger towards the image in the central shrine (pl. IV B). The two labels in Grantha characters of the seventh century at the top read sri-Simhavinna-potrādhirājan

[p.19]: and sri-Mahendra-potrādhirājan, meaning respectively, 'the glorious Adhiraja Simhavinnapotra (Sirnhavishnu-pota)" and 'the glorious Adhiraja Mahendrapotra', pota, pottadhiraja, pottarayan being a family-title of the Pallava kings, connected with the Tamil pottu or Sanskrit pallava, 'sprout', from which the Pallava family took its name. These groups respectively represent Simhavishnu (pI. IV A) and Mahendravarman I (pl. IV B). It may be recalled that there is a labelled representation of Narasimhavarman I in one of the corner-panels of the Dharmaraja-ratha (above, p. 11).

Temple I (Olakkanātha temple).-The name of the temple may probably be Olakkannisvara (ओलक्कण्णीश्वर) (flame-eye) Siva. But it is popularly known as Olakkanātha temple (ओलक्कनाथ). On the summit of the rock containing the Mahishamardini cave is this masonry temple of Siva which can be assigned to the time of Rajasimha (circa 690-715). Though the superstructure is lost, it must originally have resembled the Shore temple (below, p. 29). There are the usual rampant lions and panels representing Siva in various attitudes. Of these the most remarkable ones are Dakshinamurti (Siva as a youthful ascetic meditating under a tree), Ravananugrahamurti (रावणानुगृह मूर्ति) (Siva showing mercy to Ravana, who attempted to shake Kailasa, his mountain-abode) and Alidhanrittamurti (आलीढ़नृत्त मूर्ति) (Siva dan- cing in the pose of a warrior in action).

Cave II (Mahishamardini cave).-A straight path about 200 m from the group of the Five Rathas leads to the Mahishamardini cave, a long hall with a triple cell. The facade of this cave shows four pillars and two pilasters. The pillars are polygonal with bulbous cushion.

[p.20]: capital and square abacus. Pillars supported by squatting lions rise from the angles of a stylobate in the small mandapa projecting from the central cell which is flanked by dvarapiilas. The cornice of the mandapa and of the entrance of the cell are decorated with friezes of geese. At either end of this large hall are two large panels, one representing Seshasayi Vishnu (pl. V) and the other Mahishamardini (pl. VI). The central cell is intended for a Siva-linga, and on the wall behind is the usual representation of Somaskanda. In this case below Siva is his vehicle Nandi.

Vishnu on his serpent-couch is represented in yoga-nidra and the great calm in this figure is expressly heightened by the fury of Madhu and Kaitabha shown brandish- ing their weapons. The āyudha-purushas of Vishnu, including the beautiful youths Sudarsana (discus) and Nandaka (sword), the charming amazon Kaumodaki (club), the dwarfish Panchajanya (conch) are all shown first taking the permission of the Lord and then proceeding against the demons.

Mahishamardini is shown eight-armed, riding her lion, equipped with all weapons and using the bow with its string pulled up to her ear. She is attended by hosts of ganas and amazon yoginis and is in the war-like alidha (आलीढ़) posture using a huge club. The umbrellas held over the vanquished and the victor are very suggestive. The contours of the Mahisha-demon have been powerfully delineated and the battle-scene is full of animation, the enthusiasm of the ganas and the dispirited attitude of the Asuras being delightfully contrasted. This is one of the most remarkable representations of Mahishamardini

[p.21]: in a group, of which we have another at Ellora. This, along with Sheshasayi Vishnu opposite, Varaha and Gaja-Lakshmi in the Varaha cave (below, p. 25) and Arjuna's penance (p. 21) are probably the best representations of plastic art at Mahabalipuram.

Cave III (Dharmaraja-mandapa).- This cave-temple, typical of Mahendravarman's time, is triple-celled and, has massive pillars. The dvarapala (door-keeper) figures have been chipped and effaced by vandals.

Cave IV (Krishna-mandapa).-This cave cut on the side of a boulder shows a remarkable scene from Krishna's life, viz., Krishna lifting mount Govardhana. Vandalism has not caused much damage,except for the later Vaishnavite mark incised on the forehead of the couchant bull and the erection of a modern pillared hall which destroys the view of the original facade. The principal scene shows Krishna lifting Govardhana mountain to protect the cowherds and cowherdesses (gopas and gopis) from the storm raised by Indra. Krishna is shown supporting the mountain on his left palm, the other hand being in boon-giving (varada) attitude. Close to him are gopis standing and gazing at him in astonishment. Towards his right is Balarama with his left hand resting on the shoulder of a gopa and the right on the hip. To his right is a charming scene of a cowherd milking the cow, the animal licking the calf in a very natural manner. Close by stands a gopi holding a pile of milk-pots in a rope-sling and balancing a bundle of fodder on her head; and beside her stands a wood-cutter with his axe idly resting on his shoulder. Behind the cow that is being milked is a little child in the arms of its mother, and

[p.22]: further up a cowherd playing a flute. All round there is a herd of cows even beyond Krishna to the left, where a little boy in naive curiosity stands in front of a woman with a pile of pots containing milk poised on her head, and an old man carries a baby on his shoulder; everything realistically depicts the unconcern of the cowherds at the fury of Indra, who, as the story goes, sent a storm to chastise the gopis but could not injure them in any way, being protected by the mountain Govardhana held aloft by Krishna. The mountain itself contains at one end a group of lions, griffins and sphinxes in their lairs and a couchant bull at the other. This representation of the Govardhana scene is probably the best in India, even the one at Ellora coming nowhere near this. These griffins and sphinxes remind us of similar earlier representations at Amaravati and Sanchi and show the persistence of earlier tradition.

Cave V (Panchapandava-mandapa).-Beyond this is a large cave-temple known as Panchapandava-mandapa of which only six lion-pillars and similar pilasters at either end are finished. The brackets above the capitals of these pillars are decorated with lions and griffins with human riders.

Arjuna's penance/Descent of the Ganges (pl. VII) .-This magnificent carving is unique in the range of Indian art. Two large boulders with a narrow fissure in between have been chosen to represent a series of rows of gods and goddesses like Chandra, Surya, pairs of Kinnaras and Siddhas, Gandharvas, Apsaras, etc., rushing towards a central point near the cleft where a sage stands on his left foot deeply engaged in penance involving physical mortification.

[p.23]: To his right is a four-armed Siva of majestic bearing carrying a trident in one of his hands and attended by dwarf ganas. Apart from the celestials there are hunters, sages, disciples and wild animals like the lion, tiger, elephant and boar. The group of elephants, so faithfully true to nature, are real masterpieces that enhance the charm of this wonderful carving. The young ones nestling in the space between the legs of the parent- animal and playing with trunks show delightful delineation of life. The cleft is occupied by gracefully-carved figures of Nagas and Nagis with hands in adoration. In the vicinity is a temple of Vishnu where a number of sages are depicted in yoga-attitude in deep meditation, some with their legs fixed in paryanka-granthi or yoga-patta to ensure proper yogic posture. Below them are the disciples, one of them carrying water in a pot on his shoulder, another wringing out water from a wet cloth, a third engaged in suryopasthana, i.e., with the fingers of both hands bent to form a kind of telescope to look at the sun avoiding the fierce rays (as is usual after the mādhyandina-sandhyā), thereby indicating the position of the sun and the hour of the day. The vicinity of the hermitages of the sages is suggested by the presence of the deer fearlessly resting at ease near a lion. The radia- tion of peace and calm by the sages is reflected in a meditating cat, around which a number of rats are frolicking about. The portrayal of Nagas, usually associat- ed with water, in the cleft, the temple, the sages, the suggestion of their dwellings and the disciples performing rituals possible only near water-all these devices have been adopted by the sculptor to indicate that the

[p.24]: cleft is intended to represent a river descending from the hills.

This scene is generally taken to represent a story from the Mahabharata in which Arjuna, the epic-hero, performed penance to please Siva and thus to obtain the Pasupata weapon from him. This story was very popular about the time when the sculpture was executed. Bharavi, a Sanskrit poet of the sixth century, adapted it for the theme of his Kiratarjuniya. This is also the theme that is carved on a pillar at Vijayawada containing an Eastern Chalukyan inscription of the tenth century and on the gopuram of the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur (AD 1000).

In the Mahabhalipuram sculpture, however, an important part of the story, viz., the fight between Arjuna and Siva disguised as a hunter, is absent, and this has led some to doubt this identification of the sculpture. According to them, the representation here is that of Bhagiratha's penance and Siva granting him the desired boon by agreeing to release Ganga from his locks, the scene thus representing the descent of the river from the Jungle-covered hills in the joyful and adoring presence of the gods.

A little away to the south of this, in front of the lighthouse, is another boulder on which there is an unfinished representation of a similar scene. The sculptor of the finished work might have experimented here before undertaking his main task.

Monkey-group.- Close by is a tiny but realistic carving of a group of monkeys, a family consisting of the father, mother and child. One of the parents is removing lice

[p.25]: from the head of the other, while the little one is resting on the lap.

Elephant-group.-A little beyond the Ganesa-ratha towards the north is a small unfinished group of elephants, a peacock and a monkey. The elephants show a family composed of the parent animals and two little ones. The realistically-carved peacock and monkey are perched a little above.

Near the approach to this group is a perfectly balanced huge boulder resting on slender rock-base, popularly known as Krishna's butter-ball. Beyond this, three huge boulders, suggesting an open-air country oven, are called Bhima's oven by the villagers.

Monolith VI (Ganesha-ratha).-A path beyond the Monkey-group leads to the Ganesa-ratha, one of the finest monolithic temples at Mahabalipuram (pl. IX). Though three-storeyed and of better workmanship, it resembles the Bhima-ratha (above, p. 14) in roof-form. The gable-ends of the wagon-roof have a finial showing a human head decorated by trident-shaped head-gear, the side-prongs suggesting the usual horns in the dvarapiilq.-figures and the central one a long and narrow crown. This motif is repeated in the finials of the decorative gables along the wagon-roof. There is as usual the pavilion and kudu-ornamentation. The elaboratelyworked roof has nine vase-shaped finials and is the precursor of the later gopuram, an essential adjunct of medie- val south Indian temples. A row of pilasters decorates the sides and the back, while the opening is to the west. Between the dvarapalas at either end are two lion-pillars in the centre and two pilasters. The cell beyond the hall

[p.26]:once contained a Siva-linga, but it is now occupied by a figure of Ganesa installed by villagers four or five decades ago.

Cave VI (Varaha cave II).- Close by to the south-west of the Ganesha-ratha and behind Arjuna's penance is the cave known as Varaha-mandapa, a fine specimen of its type. The hall at the front has two lion-pillars and two pilasters, and beyond this, in the centre, is the cell guarded by two dvarapalas. There are four panels representing Varaha raising the earth from the ocean wherein she was submerged (pl. VIII); Gaja-Lakshmi seated on lotus and bathed by elephants; Durga with four arms; and Trivikrama overcoming the demon king Bali. A remarkable feature about the first panel is that the snout of the boar has been modelled with great care and the head of the animal has been handled with such dexterity that it blends in a natural way with the human contour of the rest of the figure in the panel. Among those surrounding and adoring Varaha are Surya, Brahma, the rishis and a goddess who is Prithvi herself. The right foot of Varaha rests on the hoods of the Naga king Sesha. The delineation of lotus-leaves and flowers and ripples suggests water.

In the Gaja-Lakshmi Panel, Lakshmi is seated on the lotus wearing a peculiar type of crown met with in Pallava sculpture and suvarnavaikakshaka (golden cross-garland on the torso) and hands in position to hold lotuses. The pond is suggested by the lotus-leaves below. The goddess is flanked by two nymphs on either side bringing pots filled with water for her bath which two elephants empty over her head. Here, as elsewhere

[p.27]: in Mahabalipuram, the female figures appear apparently nude, but the student of early Indian sculpture will see that this is merely a suggestion of diaphanous apparel. The contours of the trunks of the elephants and the natural folds of their ears have been handled delicately.

In the Durga Panel,Durga is represented standing and with four arms, carrying the wheel and discus in the upper pair, the other two hands being in abhaya and katyavalambita. The parasol above signifies her universal sovereignty. On either side are a lion and an antelope. Siva-ganas skip above and two devotees flank her at her feet, the one to her right cutting and offering his head.

In the Trivikrama Panel Vishnu holds his bow, sword and shield in addition to his conch, discus and club. The celestial sphere is suggested above by the Sun and Moon. Bali and other subdued demons are shown at his feet. Brahma adores the uplifted foot of Vishnu, and Jambavan beats a drum and rejoices over the event. The figure corresponding to Brahma to the right of Trivikrama is probably Siva. The figure falling in mid-air is probably of Trisanku, and this suggests that the foot of Vishnu reached the abode of the celestials beyond that of Trisanku, who is supposed to occupy the mid-air.

Rayala-gopuram.-Beyond this, at the top of the boulder) is an unfinished gopuram or temple gate-tower of the Vijayanagara period showing the typical decora- tion on the jambs. This is the second unfinished Vijayanagara gopuram at Mahabalipuram, the other one being opposite the Talasayana temple (below, p. 29).

[p.28]: Cave VII (Ramanuja-mandapa) .-Further north and facing east is, a cave called the Ramanuja-mandapa. It is a triple-celled Saivite cave completely ruined in later times by vandals who chiselled and destroyed the carved panels. The facade of the cave has two pillars and two pilasters supported by squatting lions.

The palace-site and lion-throne.-To the north-west of the lighthouse is a plateau where the royal palace was probably located, now marked by a heap of brick debris. The only noteworthy object here is a monolithic lion and a large rectangular seat with a beautifully carved couchant lion at one end. The modelling of the animal closely resembling the vehicle of the goddess in the Mahishamardini cave (above, p. 18), is exceedingly well-done. The lion is significantly portrayed as roaring, proclaiming, as it were, the sovereign power of the Pallavas. The back is made somewhat flat to serve as a seat.

Cave VIII (Kotikāl-mandapa). - To the west is a small primitive rock-cut cave-temple, devoted to Durga. From the massive pillars and the general features of the temple, which closely resemble others of the Mahendra period, specially the one at Mahendravadi, it can be assigned to the time of Mahendravarman I. The facade shows two massive pillars and pilasters at either end. Beyond the hall to the front and cut in the centre of the back wall is a cell guarded by female door-keepers on either side of' the entrance. There is an inscription sri-Vamankusa in letters of the middle of the seventh century on one of the pillars.

Cave IX (Konneri-mandapa). - This is a crude unfinished

[p.29]: cave-temple with four pillars supported by couchant lions and flanked by pilasters and with a central cell.

Cave X. - Close to this to the south-west is a five-celled rock-cut temple. Though the pillars here resemble the type usually met with in Mahendravarman's shrines, their greater finish and attenuated shape, the general form of their carving including dvarapalas and the advanced architectural features all point to the time of Narasimhavarman I as the date of the excavation of the cave. There is a front row of four pillars and two pilasters, each divided into three parts, the top and lower portions cubical in section and the middle one octagonal. There is a back row of four pillars similar in style to the' pillars of the front row in the Mahishamardini cave, round in section but fluted and provided with bulbous cushion-capitals. The socket-holes in the floor of the five shrine-cells indicate that they were intended for Siva-li1igas. The row of kudus or chaitya-windows along the cornice with faces peeping through them and with shovel-headed finial and the row of geese below are typical of tile early Pallava period.

Stone cistern ('Gopi's churn').-Opposite the temple is a large circular rock-cut cistern popularly known as Gopi's churn. On its rim is engraved sri-Kadhiti in Pallava characters.

Cave IX (Trimurti cave) . -This is a triple-celled temple for the three gods of the Hindu pantheon, Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. The front of each one of these cells is beautifully carved with all the usual decoration of a gopuram, and pilasters support the superstructure. The entrance of each cell is flanked by dvarapiilas in narrow

[p.30]: panels shown as usual in three-quarters profile. Towards one end beyond these is a niche surmounted by makara- torana for eight-armed Durga standing on the cut head of the demon Mahisha. In the cells are represented Brahma, Siva and Vishnu, each attended by kneeling devotees and flying dwarf ganas, one of each on either side. Brahma unusually has here a single face and wears a cross-garland of rudraksha beads. He carries a rosary and water-vessel in his upper pair of arms, the other two being in abhaya and katyavalambita as in the other two deities . Siva carries an axe and rosary and Vishnu a conch and discus. The word malta in letters of Narasimhavarman's time in Brahma's cell indicates the date of these carvings.

Temple II (Talashayana-perumal temple). This temple, situated in front of Arjuna's penance, is a comparatively modern Vishnu temple dedicated to Talasayana-peru- mal. The carving and workmanship, though not very lavish, is typical of the Vijayanagara period (fifteenth-sixteenth century).

The Shore temple

[p.30]: A straight path opposite the Krishna-mandapa adjoining Arjuna's penance (above, p. 21) leads to the sea. Close to the sea-shore, so close as almost to allow the spray of the waves to dash against the walls of the temple, is what is known as the Shore temple, an example of a masonry temple of Rajasimha's time (pl. X). The vimana top here is somewhat narrow and elongated unlike that of the Kailasanatha temple. The main

[p.31]: shrine faces east and the entrance to it which is a small gopuram with walls in continuation on either side leads to the perambulatory passage (pradakshinapatha) between the temple and the outer wall. The entrance to the temple is approached by steps and beyond the porch (mukha-mandapa) is the main cell which enshrines a broken fluted Siva-linga. Opposite the gopuram, perched on a boulder and with the waves actually dashing on it every minute, is an emblem-column (dhvaja-stambha), an essential feature in all temples. As is usual in Pallava temples, the Somaskanda group is presented behind the Siva-linga; it is also repeated on either side on the walls of the porch. There are, as usual, rampant lions at intervals dividing the carved panels of the outer walls of the temple, of which many are almost obliterated by the destructive agency of continuous spray of sea-water. Behind this shrine but connected with it and provided with a small porch is a cell without superstructure wherein is enshrined a figure of Seshasayi Vishnu. Adjoining this and facing west is a shrine similar to but smaller than the main one, also devoted to Siva. The Somaskanda panel is as usual on the back wall inside. In the porch on either side there are dvarapalas.

Opposite this temple, at some distance, is a balipitha and the pedestal of a dhuaja-stambha, round which have been stacked some loose sculptures, one of these being a striking representation of seated Siva as Tripurantaka with Vishnu as his arrow and another of Dakshinamurti on the four sides of a cylindrical pillar. Here an expansive courtyard is partly surrounded by an unfinished enclosure, along which are arranged rows of Nandis. The

[p.32]: remains of the entrance to the courtyard to the west are also visible. Near the entrance to the west there are panels probably dealing with scenes from the history of the Pallavas, as in the Vaikuntha-perumal temple at Kanchipuram. Among the iconographic carvings there are those of Siva, one of which, representing Tripuran- taka with Vishnu as his arrow, is interesting.

On the outer walls are a few Chola inscriptions in Tamil referring to Jalashayana alias Kshatriyasimha-pallavesvara, Palligondaruliyadeva and Rajasimha- pallavesvara. Palligondaruliyadeva refers to the image of Seshasayi Vishnu in the cell between the two shrines, the word meaning 'the god who was pleased to go to sleep'. The Siva shrine facing west should be the Rajasimha-pallavesvara temple. Hence Kshatriyasimha-pallavesvara shrine can be no other than the one facing east, Kshatriyasimha being a surname of Narasimhavarman II. In the courtyard was found a damaged inscription on the sides of the bali-pitha opposite the shrine facing west, consisting of six Sanskrit verses praising the qualities, beauty, valour and piety of Rajasimha, i.e., Narasimhavarman II. One of these verses is identical with the last verse of the long inscription in the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram.

Near the enclosure and in the vicinity of the shrine facing west is a large sculpture of Durga's lion, with the goddess seated on the right hind leg of the animal. On its chest is cut a small square niche wherein also is a representation of Durga. At the foot of the pedestal on which the lion is seated is a headless but skilfully executed couchant deer.

[p.33]: The whole compound of the Shore temple was buried under a thick deposit of sand till a few years back. This has been cleared, but the extreme nearness of sea is a perpetual menace to the safety of the temple. The salt-laden winds from the sea are eating into the vitals of the fabric and, supplemented by rain, causing erosion of the sculpture. The temple has, however, recently (1944-45) been effectively protected from the direct beating of the sea-waves and spray by the erection of a semi-circular groyne-wall.

Miscellaneous

Mashihasura rock.-A little to the north of the Shore temple is a large piece of rock almost touching the sea with a shrine of Durga cut into it. On the back wall of the shrine is an eight-armed figure of Durga. The door-way is flanked by lion-pilasters and female door-keepers. On the farther side of the rock is carved Durga's lion attacking Mahishasura.

Carved rocks.-To the south of the Shore temple and not far from it are some carved rocks, one of which has a niche and another has been fashioned into the form of a rampant lion and a niche containing Durga. A rock opposite this shrine has been shaped like a recumbent lion, and the back of the rock with the Durga shrine has another similar shrine, facing east, dedicated to Indra, whose identity is suggested by the head of an elephant carved below the niche. At one end of the rock is a carving of a trotting horse as also of some worshippers, all of which are weather-worn.

Tiger-cave.-About 4.8 km north of Mahabalipuram, in the hamlet known as Saluvankuppam, there is what is known as the Tiger-cave. It is a rock-cut shrine of Durga approached by a flight of steps, has a small portico in front and is flanked by two pilasters supported by rampant lions. All around the cells are large lion-heads. Towards the left end two other cells have elephant-heads carved beneath each. Judging from the general features of the carvings and the peculiar nature of the rampant lions the shrine may be assigned to the time of Rajasimha.

Cave XII (Atiranachanda cave) .-This shrine has intriguing features. While the massive pillars, simple corbel-capitals and the dvarapalas indicate its early date, the fluted Siva-linga inside and the Somaskanda carved on the back wall inside are late characteristics. A number of inscriptions here mention that king Atiranachanda dedicated the shrine to Siva named after himself Atiranachandesvara. The word Atiranachanda was probably one of the many surnames of Rajasimha, to whose time may be assigned the other late features of the cave.

Monolith VII (Valayankuttai-ratha) .- Near the Buckingham Canal are three rathas smaller in size than the Five Monoliths (above, p. 10). One of them, called the Valayankuttai-ratha, is a shrine facing east and, though roughly finished, resembles the Arjuna-ratha.

Monoliths VIII and IX (Pidari-rathas) .- Close to Valayankuttai-ratha are two unfinished rock-cut shrines.

Saptamatrikas and miscellaneous sculptures and the temple of Mukunda.- If the visitor has some extra time at his disposal, he may examine a group of Pallava images

[p.36]: representing the Saptamatrikas at the northern end of the hamlet adjoining Mahabalipuram and a few more sculptures, mostly broken, housed in the bungalow belonging to the zamindar, of which an Alidhanrittamurti and a Vishnu of Pallava workmanship are noteworthy.

Still further up, there is a Vishnu temple of the Rajasimha period, known as the Mukunda temple which is typical architecturally of the period and is not very much embellished with sculptural detail.

Recent Excavations

The excavation adjoining northern prakara of the Shore Temple brought to light an ovalish pond-like stepped-structure. Over the chislled basal outcrop of the structure, were noticed a monolithic sculpture of Bhuvaraha abutting the southern apse, and to its north a miniature shrine with adhishthana carved in the bedrock sporting circular super- structure. The magistic Bhuvaraha, carved realistically over a platform, bears an inscription consisting the virudas-Srirajasimhah, Sriranajayah, Sribharah, and Srichitra-kārmukha attributed to Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha (AD 700-727).

The miniature shrine is dedicated to Vrishabhantika-Siva. It bears architectural features of Pallava period with a unique rudrachchhanda-shikhara. Further excavations at the site brought to light flight of steps leading to mahadvara and bathing ghatt-like structure running north-to-south almost parallel to the sea line.

The exposed structures were conserved by resetting the ashlar masonry and burnt-bricks, besides consolidating damaged image of Bhuvaraha and architectural components of miniature shrine.

Narendra Modi–Xi Jinping Summit Mahabalipuram

Narendra Modi–Xi Jinping at Krishna's Butter Ball, Mahabalipuram
Narendra Modi–Xi Jinping at Arjuna's Penance, Mahabalipuram
Narendra Modi–Xi Jinping at Five Ratha, Mahabalipuram

On 12 October 2019, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Chinese President Xi Jinping had an informal meet at Mahabalipuram. Narendra Modi and Xi Jinping visited places like Arjuna's Penance, Pancha Rathas and Shore Temple and later explained about the sculptures and paintings to the Chinese president. Later both gave a pose in front of Krishna's Butterball.

महाबलीपुरम् में मोदी और जिनपिंग की शिखर बैठक

तमिलनाडु के ऐतिहासिक शहर महाबलीपुरम् में एशिया के दो ‘महाबली’ भारतीय प्रधानमंत्री नरेन्द्र मोदी और चीन के राष्ट्रपति शी जिनपिंग 11.10.2019 को मिले। पूरा समय दोनों ने घूमने-फिरने में बिताया। पीएम मोदी और जिनपिंग ने अर्जुन की तपस्या स्थली देखी, तत्पश्चात मोदी और शी कृष्ण बटरबॉल का भ्रमण करते हुए नज़र आये। इसके बाद मोदी और जिनपिंग ने साथ में पंच रथ का भ्रमण किया। यहाँ पीएम मोदी और जिनपिंग ने कैमरे के सामने पोज़ भी दिये। यहाँ से मोदी और जिनपिंग समुद्र के किनारे स्थित शोर मंदिर पहुँचे। शनिवार 12.10.2019 को दोनों नेताओं के बीच अनौपचारिक शिखर बैठक हुई।

महाबलीपुरम का परिचय

महाबलीपुरम (Mahabalipuram) या मामल्लपुरम (Mamallapuram) भारत के तमिल नाडु राज्य के चेंगलपट्टु ज़िले में स्थित एक शहर है। यह मंदिरों का शहर राज्य की राजधानी, चेन्नई, से 58 किलोमीटर दूर बंगाल की खाड़ी से तटस्थ है। यह प्राचीन शहर अपने भव्य मंदिरों, स्थापत्य और सागर-तटों के लिए बहुत प्रसिद्ध है। सातवीं शताब्दी में यह शहर पल्लव राजाओं की राजधानी था। द्रविड़ वास्तुकला की दृष्टि से यह शहर अग्रणी स्थान रखता है। यहाँ पर पत्थरों को काट कर मन्दिर बनाया गया। पल्लव वंश के अंतिम शासक अपराजित थे।

महाबलीपुरम के मुख्य आकर्षण

पंच रथ मंदिर (Five Rathas): महाबलीपुरम के लोकप्रिय रथ दक्षिणी सिरे पर स्थित हैं। यह समूह एक ही पत्थर में से कटे हुए पाँच मन्दिरों का है, जिन्हें रथ कहते हैं। महाभारत के पांच पांडवों के नाम पर इन रथों को पांडव रथ कहा जाता है। इनके नाम हैं- 1. द्रौपदी रथ, 2. अर्जुन रथ, 3. धर्मराज रथ, 4. भीम रथ, और 5. नकुल-सहदेव रथ. पांच में से चार रथों को एकल चट्टान पर उकेरा गया है। द्रौपदी और अर्जुन रथ वर्ग के आकार के हैं जबकि भीम रथ रेखीय आकार में है। भीमरथ की छत गाड़ी के टाप के सदृश जान पड़ती है। धर्मराज रथ सबसे ऊंचा है। धर्मराज रथ पाँच तलों से युक्त है। यह एक सुन्दर स्मारक परिसर है जिसका निर्माण 7वीं सदी में महेंद्र वर्मन प्रथम और बेटे नरसिंह वर्मन प्रथम ने करवाया था। पंच रथ के पांच स्मारकों को पूरी तरीके से रथ के समान बनाया गया है जो सभी ग्रेनाइट पत्थर को खोद-खोद कर बनाए गए हैं।

गंगा अवतरण का स्मारक (Descent of the Ganges) - यह गंगा अवतरण के स्मारक महाबलीपुरम में स्थित हैं। 96X43 फीट का यह स्मारक सुंदर कलाकारी को दर्शाता है। यह एक बड़ा पत्थर है जसमें खोद-खोद कर भगीरथ द्वारा गंगा का पृथ्वी पर अवतरण का बहुत ही अद्भुत चित्रण किया गया है। कुछ विद्वान इस दृश्य को महाभारत की एक कहानी से जुड़ा हुआ मानते हैं जिसमें अर्जुन शिव को खुश करने के लिए तपस्या करते हैं इसलिये इसे अर्जुन की तपस्या/अर्जुन्स् पेनेन्स (Arjuna's penance) भी कहते हैं। यह स्थान सबसे विशाल नक्काशी के लिए लोकप्रिय है। इसमें व्हेल मछली के पीठ के आकार की विशाल शिलाखंड पर ईश्वर, मानव, पशुओं और पक्षियों की आकृतियां उकेरी गई हैं। अर्जुन्स् पेनेन्स को मात्र महाबलिपुरम या तमिलनाडु की गौरव ही नहीं बल्कि देश का गौरव माना जाता है।

शोर टेम्पल (Shore Temple): प्राचीन काल में समुद्र तट पर तथा सन्निकट समुद्र के अन्दर स्थित सप्तरथों का उल्लेख है, जिनमें से छः तो समुद्र में समा गए हैं और एक समुद्र तट पर विशाल मन्दिर के रूप में विद्यमान है जिसे शोर टेम्पल कहा जाता है। ये छः भी पत्थरों के ढेरों के रूप में समुद्र के अन्दर दिखाई पड़ते हैं। महाबलिपुरम के तट मन्दिर को दक्षिण भारत के सबसे प्राचीन मंदिरों में माना जाता है जिसका संबंध आठवीं शताब्दी से है। यह मंदिर द्रविड वास्तुकला का बेहतरीन नमूना है। यहां तीन मंदिर हैं। बीच में भगवान विष्णु का मंदिर है जिसके दोनों तरफ से शिव मंदिर हैं। मंदिर से टकराती सागर की लहरें एक अनोखा दृश्य उपस्थित करती हैं। इसे महाबलीपुरम का रथ मंदिर भी कहते है। इसका निर्माण नरसिंह बर्मन प्रथम ने कराया था। प्रांरभ में इस शहर को "मामल्लपुरम" कहा जाता था।


कृष्ण मंडपम (Krishna Mandapam): यह मंदिर महाबलीपुरम के प्रारंभिक पत्थरों को काटकर बनाए गए मंदिरों में एक है। मामल्लपुरम में भगवान कृष्ण का सबसे बड़ा मंडप है। इस मंडपम के अंदर गोवर्धन के ग्रामीण जीवन के दृश्यों की चट्टानों पर बेहतरीन नक्काशी हैं। मंदिर की दीवारों पर ग्रामीण जीवन की झलक देखी जा सकती है। एक चित्र में भगवान कृष्ण को गोवर्धन पर्वत को उंगली पर उठाए दिखाया गया है। एक चरवाहा गाय को दूध पिला रहा है। एक किसान बच्चे को अपने कंधे पर लादे हुए है। एक महिला अपने सिर पर चटाई समेटे जा रही है। एक युवा दंपत्ति को खूबसूरती से चित्रित किया गया है। सबसे बड़ी नक्काशी में यह दर्शाया गया है कि भगवान कृष्ण ने अपनी उंगली पर पूरे गोवर्धन पहाड़ को उठाकर भगवान इंद्र के प्रकोप से गांव वालों को कैसे बचाया। बारिश इतनी तेज हुई कि सब कुछ डूब सकता था। लेकिन भगवान कृष्ण ने सात दिन तक गोवर्धन पर्वत को अपनी उंगली पर उठाए रखा। कृष्ण मंडपम अर्जुन की तपस्या स्थल के ठीक बगल में है। इसी परिसर में गणेश रथ और कृष्ण बटर बॉल भी है।

कृष्ण की मक्खन गेंद (Krishna's Butter Ball)- दक्षिण भारत के महाबलीपुरम में 1200 वर्ष पुराना एक पत्थर बहुत ही अजीबोगरीब तरीके से रखा हुआ है। इसे देखकर लगता है कि यह जरा सा धकेलने में नीचे गिर पड़ेगा, लेकिन ऐसा नहीं है। इस पत्थर की चौड़ाई 5 मीटर तथा ऊंचाई 20 फीट है। सन् 1908 में इस पत्थर पर उस समय के मद्रास गवर्नर आर्थर की नजर पड़ी तो उनको लगा कि यह पत्थर किसी बड़ी दुर्घटना का कारण बन सकता है इसलिए उन्होंने इस पत्थर को उसके स्थान से हटवाने के लिए 7 हाथियों से खिंचवाया पर यह पत्थर अपनी जगह से एक इंच भी नहीं खिसका। ग्रेविटी के नियमों की उपेक्षा करते हुए यह पत्थर एक ढलान वाली पहाड़ी पर 45 डिग्री के कोण पर बिना लुढ़के टिका हुआ है। लोग इस पत्थर को 'कृष्ण की मक्खन गेंद' भी कहते हैं क्योंकि उनका मानना है कि यह पत्थर मक्खन की गेंद है जिसको कृष्ण ने अपनी बाल्य अवस्था में नीचे गिरा दिया था।

दीपस्तम्भ की पहाड़ी में गुफाएँ (Light House & Hill area caves): पहाड़ी पर स्थित दीपस्तंभ समुद्र-यात्राओं की सुरक्षा के लिए बनवाया गया था. इसके निकट ही सप्तरथों के परम विशाल मंदिर विदेश यात्राओं पर जाने वाले यात्रियों को मातृभूमि का अंतिम संदेश देते रहे होंगे। वराह गुफा विष्णु के वराह और वामन अवतार के लिए प्रसिद्ध है। साथ की पल्लव के चार मननशील द्वारपालों के पैनल लिए भी वराह गुफा चर्चित है। सातवीं शताब्दी की महिसासुर मर्दिनी गुफा भी पैनल पर नक्काशियों के लिए खासी लोकप्रिय है।

टाइगर गुफाएं (Tiger caves) - यह गुफाएं महाबलीपुरम की सबसे बेहतरीन कलाकृतियां हैं। इनके बाहर पत्थर में उभरे हुए शेर की मूर्तियां हैं। यह भी पल्लव राजाओं द्वारा बनाया गया था।

मूर्ति संग्रहालय (Sculpture Museum: राजा स्ट्रीट के पूर्व में स्थित इस संग्रहालय में स्थानीय कलाकारों की 3000 से अधिक मूर्तियां देखी जा सकती हैं। संग्रहालय में रखी मूर्तियां पीतल, रोड़ी, लकड़ी और सीमेन्ट की बनी हैं।

मुट्टुकाडु (Muttukadu): यह स्थान महाबलिपुरम से 21 किलोमीटर की दूरी पर है जो वाटर स्पोर्टस् के लिए लोकप्रिय है। यहां नौकायन, केनोइंग, कायकिंग और विंडसर्फिग जैसी जलक्रीड़ाओं का आनंद लिया जा सकता है।

कोवलोंग (Covelong): महाबलिपुरम से 19 किलोमीटर दूर कोवलोंग का खूबसूरत बीच रिजॉर्ट स्थित है। इस शांत फिशिंग विलेज में एक किले के अवशेष देखे जा सकते हैं। यहां तैराकी, विंडसफिइर्ग और वाटर स्पोट्र्स की तमाम सुविधाएं उपलब्ध हैं।

क्रोकोडाइल बैंक (Crocodile Bank): महाबलिपुरम से 14 किलोमीटर दूर चैन्नई-महाबलिपुरम रोड़ पर क्रोकोडाइल बैंक स्थित है। इसे 1976 में अमेरिका के रोमुलस विटेकर ने स्थापित किया था। स्थापना के 15 साल बाद यहां मगरमच्छों की संख्या 15 से 5000 हो गई थी। इसके नजदीक ही सांपों का एक फार्म है।

महाबलीपुरम्

विजयेन्द्र कुमार माथुर[6] ने लेख किया है ...महाबलीपुरम् (AS, p.723): एक ऐतिहासिक नगर है जो 'ममल्लपुरम्' भी कहलाता है। यह पूर्वोत्तर तमिलनाडु राज्य, दक्षिण भारत में स्थित है। यह नगर बंगाल की खाड़ी पर चेन्नई (भूतपूर्व मद्रास) से 60 किलोमीटर दूर स्थित है.

मद्रास से लगभग 40 मील दूर समुद्र तट पर स्थित वर्तमान ममल्लपुर. इसका एक अन्य प्राचीन नाम बाणपुर भी है. यह पल्लव नरेशों के समय (सातवीं सदी ई.) में बने सप्तरथ नामक विशाल मंदिरों के लिए प्रसिद्ध है. ये मंदिर भारत के प्राचीन वास्तुशिल्प के गौरवमय उदाहरण माने जाते हैं. पल्लवों के समय में दक्षिण भारत की संस्कृति उन्नति के सर्वोच्च शिखर पर पहुंची हुई थी. इस काल में बृहत्तर भारत, विशेषकर स्याम, कंबोडिया, मलाया और इंडोनेशिया में दक्षिण भारत से बहुसंख्यक लोग जाकर बसे थे और वहां पहुंच कर उन्होंने नए-नए भारतीय उपनिवेशों की स्थापना की थी. महाबलीपुर के निकट एक पहाड़ी पर स्थित दीपस्तंभ समुद्र-यात्राओं की सुरक्षा के लिए बनवाया गया था. इसके निकट ही सप्तरथों के परम विशाल मंदिर विदेश यात्राओं पर जाने वाले यात्रियों को मातृभूमि का अंतिम संदेश देते रहे होंगे. [p.724] दीपस्तंभ के शिखर से शिल्पकृतियों के चार समूह दृष्टिगोचर होते हैं.

पहला समूह:पहला समूहएक ही पत्थर में से कटे हुए पाँच मन्दिरों का है, जिन्हें रथ कहते हैं। ये कणाश्म या ग्रेनाइट पत्थर के बने हुए हैं। इनमें से विशालतम धर्मरथ हैं जो पाँच तलों से युक्त हैं। इसकी दीवारों पर सघन मूर्तिकारी दिखाई पड़ती है। भूमितल की भित्ति पर आठ चित्रफलक प्रदर्शित हैं, जिनमें अर्ध-नारीश्वर की कलापूर्ण मूर्ति का निर्माण बड़ी कुशलता से किया गया है। दूसरे तल पर शिव, विष्णु और कृष्ण की मूर्तियों का चित्रण है। फूलों की डलिया लिए हुए एक सुन्दरी का मूर्तिचित्र अत्यन्त ही मनोरम है। दूसरा रथ भीमरथ नामक है, जिसकी छत गाड़ी के टाप के सदृश जान पड़ती है। तीसरा मन्दिर धर्मरथ के समान है। इसमें वामनों और हंसों का सुन्दर अंकन है। चौथे में महिषासुर मर्दिनी दुर्गा की मूर्ति है। पाँचवां एक ही पत्थर में से कटा हुआ है और हाथी की आकृति के समान जान पड़ता है।

दूसरा समूह: दूसरा समूह दीपस्तम्भ की पहाड़ी में स्थित कई गुफ़ाओं के रूप में दिखाई पड़ता है। वराह गुफ़ा में वराह अवतार की कथा का और महिषासुर गुफ़ा में महिषासुर तथा अनंतशायी विष्णु की मूर्तियों का अंकन है। वराहगुफ़ा में जो अब निरन्तर अन्धेरी है, बहुत सुन्दर मूर्तिकारी प्रदर्शित है। इसी में हाथियों के द्वारा स्थापित गजलक्ष्मी का भी अंकन है। साथ ही सस्त्रीक पल्लव नरेशों की उभरी हुई प्रतिमाएँ हैं, जो वास्तविकता तथा कलापूर्ण भावचित्रण में बेजोड़ कही जाती है।

तीसरा समूह: तीसरा समूह सुदीर्घ शिलाओं के मुखपृष्ठ पर उकेरे हुए कृष्ण लीला तथा महाभारत के दृश्यों के विविध मूर्तिचित्रों का है। जिनमें गोवर्धन धारण, अर्जुन की तपस्या आदि के दृश्य अतीव सुन्दर हैं। इनसे पता चलता है कि स्वदेश से दक्षिण पूर्व एशिया के देशों में जाकर बस जाने वाले भारतीयों में महाभारत तथा पुराणों आदि की कथाओं के प्रति कितनी गहरी आस्था थी। इन लोगों ने नए उपनिवेशों में जाकर भी अपनी सांस्कृतिक परम्परा को बनाए रखा था। जैसा ऊपर कहा गया है, महाबलीपुर समुद्रपार जाने वाले यात्रियों के लिए मुख्य बंदरगाह था और मातृभूमि छोड़ते समय ये मूर्तिचित्र इन्हें अपने देश की पुरानी संस्कृति की याद दिलाते थे।

चौथा समूह: चौथा समूह समुद्र तट पर तथा सन्निकट समुद्र के अन्दर स्थित सप्तरथों का है, जिनमें से छः तो समुद्र में समा गए हैं और एक समुद्र तट पर विशाल मन्दिर के रूप में विद्यमान है। ये छः भी पत्थरों के ढेरों के रूप में समुद्र के अन्दर दिखाई पड़ते हैं।[p.725]

महाबलीपुरम के रथ: महाबलीपुरम के रथ जो शैलकृत्त हैं, अजन्ता और एलौरा के गुहा मन्दिरों की भाँति पहाड़ी चट्टानों को काट कर तो अवश्य बनाए गए हैं किन्तु उनके विपरीत ये रथ, पहाड़ी के भीतर बने हुए वेश्म नहीं हैं, अर्थात ये शैलकृत होते हुए भी संरचनात्मक हैं। इनको बनाते समय शिल्पियों ने चट्टान को भीतर और बाहर से काट कर पहाड़ से अलग कर दिया है। जिससे ये पहाड़ी के पार्श्व में स्थित जान नहीं पड़ते हैं, वरन् उससे अलग खड़े हुए दिखाई पड़ते हैं। महाबलीपुरम दो वर्ग मील के घेरे में फैला हुआ है। वास्तव में यह स्थान पल्लव नरेशों की शिल्प साधना का अमर स्मारक है।

Gallery

Gallery of images dated 6.1.1982 by Laxman Burdak
  • Mahabalipuram Sea Beach

    Mahabalipuram Sea Beach

  • Nakula Sahadeva Ratha, Mahabalipuram

    Nakula Sahadeva Ratha, Mahabalipuram

  • Mahabalipuram Shore Temple

    Mahabalipuram Shore Temple

  • Mahabalipuram Sea Beach

    Mahabalipuram Sea Beach

Gallery of images dated 16.12.2007 by Laxman Burdak
  • Fiverathas.Draupadi-Arjuna-Dharmaraja-Bheema-Nakula Shadeva Rathas, Mahabalipuram

    Fiverathas.Draupadi-Arjuna-Dharmaraja-Bheema-Nakula Shadeva Rathas, Mahabalipuram

  • Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Fiverathas.Draupadi-Arjuna-Dharmaraja-Bheema-Nakula Shadeva Rathas, Mahabalipuram

    Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Fiverathas.Draupadi-Arjuna-Dharmaraja-Bheema-Nakula Shadeva Rathas, Mahabalipuram

  • Draupadi Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Mahabalipuram

    Draupadi Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Mahabalipuram

  • Gomati Burdak at Arjuna Ratha, Bheema Ratha. Lion and Elephant sculptures, Mahabalipuram

    Gomati Burdak at Arjuna Ratha, Bheema Ratha. Lion and Elephant sculptures, Mahabalipuram

  • Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Draupadi Ratha-Arjuna Ratha- Lion sculpture, Mahabalipuram

    Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Draupadi Ratha-Arjuna Ratha- Lion sculpture, Mahabalipuram

  • Fresco of Durga within the ratha's sanctum, Mahabalipuram

    Fresco of Durga within the ratha's sanctum, Mahabalipuram

  • Arjuna Ratha, Mahabalipuram

    Arjuna Ratha, Mahabalipuram

  • Draupadiratha & Nandi sculpture, Mahabalipuram

    Draupadiratha & Nandi sculpture, Mahabalipuram

  • Bheema Ratha, Mahabalipuram

    Bheema Ratha, Mahabalipuram

  • Dharmaraja Ratha, Mahabalipuram

    Dharmaraja Ratha, Mahabalipuram

  • Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Dharmaraja Ratha, Mahabalipuram

    Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Dharmaraja Ratha, Mahabalipuram

  • Ardhanarishvara in Dharmarajaratha, Mahabalipuram

    Ardhanarishvara in Dharmarajaratha, Mahabalipuram

  • Harihara in Dharmarajaratha, Mahabalipuram

    Harihara in Dharmarajaratha, Mahabalipuram

  • Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Dharmaraja Ratha, Mahabalipuram

    Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Dharmaraja Ratha, Mahabalipuram

  • Nakula Sahadeva Ratha (left) Bheema Ratha (right), Mahabalipuram

    Nakula Sahadeva Ratha (left) Bheema Ratha (right), Mahabalipuram

  • Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha, Mahabalipuram

    Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha, Mahabalipuram

  • Draupadi Ratha & Lion sculpture, Mahabalipuram

    Draupadi Ratha & Lion sculpture, Mahabalipuram

  • Fiverathas Board, Mahabalipuram

    Fiverathas Board, Mahabalipuram

  • Gomati Burdak at Ollakaneshvara Temple

    Gomati Burdak at Ollakaneshvara Temple

  • Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Ollakaneshvara Temple, Mahabalipuram

    Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Ollakaneshvara Temple, Mahabalipuram

  • Gomati Burdak at Ollakaneshvara Temple, Mahabalipuram

    Gomati Burdak at Ollakaneshvara Temple, Mahabalipuram

  • Gomati Burdak at Ollakaneshvara Temple, Mahabalipuram

    Gomati Burdak at Ollakaneshvara Temple, Mahabalipuram

  • Ollakaneshvara Temple, Mahabalipuram

    Ollakaneshvara Temple, Mahabalipuram

  • View of Hill at Mahabalipuram, Mahabalipuram

    View of Hill at Mahabalipuram, Mahabalipuram

  • Mahabalipura-Light House, Mahabalipuram

    Mahabalipura-Light House, Mahabalipuram

  • Mahishamardini cave, Mahabalipuram

    Mahishamardini cave, Mahabalipuram

  • Mahishamardini in Mahishamardini cave, Mahabalipuram

    Mahishamardini in Mahishamardini cave, Mahabalipuram

  • Sheshashayi in Mahishamardini cave, Mahabalipuram

    Sheshashayi in Mahishamardini cave, Mahabalipuram

  • Mahishamardini in Mahishamardini cave, Mahabalipuram

    Mahishamardini in Mahishamardini cave, Mahabalipuram

  • Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram

    Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram

  • Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram

    Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram

  • Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Shore Temple Sea Beach, Mahabalipuram

    Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Shore Temple Sea Beach, Mahabalipuram

  • Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram

    Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram

  • Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram

    Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram

  • Mahishasura Rock at Sea Beach, Mahabalipuram

    Mahishasura Rock at Sea Beach, Mahabalipuram

  • Krishna lifting Govardhan Hill in Krishna Mandapam, Mahabalipuram

    Krishna lifting Govardhan Hill in Krishna Mandapam, Mahabalipuram

  • View of Rural life in Krishna Mandapam, Mahabalipuram

    View of Rural life in Krishna Mandapam, Mahabalipuram

  • Gomati Burdak in Krishna Mandapam, Mahabalipuram

    Gomati Burdak in Krishna Mandapam, Mahabalipuram

  • Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak in Krishna Mandapam, Mahabalipuram

    Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak in Krishna Mandapam, Mahabalipuram

  • Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak in Krishna Mandapam, Mahabalipuram

    Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak in Krishna Mandapam, Mahabalipuram

  • Krishna Mandapam Entrance, Mahabalipuram

    Krishna Mandapam Entrance, Mahabalipuram

  • Descent of the Ganges, Mahabalipuram

    Descent of the Ganges, Mahabalipuram

  • Descent of the Ganges, Mahabalipuram

    Descent of the Ganges, Mahabalipuram

  • Descent of the Ganges, Mahabalipuram

    Descent of the Ganges, Mahabalipuram

  • Arjuna's Penace or Descent of the Ganges, Mahabalipuram

    Arjuna's Penace or Descent of the Ganges, Mahabalipuram

  • Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Krishna's Butter Ball, Mahabalipuram

    Laxman Burdak & Gomati Burdak at Krishna's Butter Ball, Mahabalipuram

  • Varaha Cave, Mahabalipuram

    Varaha Cave, Mahabalipuram

  • Varaha in Varaha cave II, Mahabalipuram

    Varaha in Varaha cave II, Mahabalipuram

  • Trivikrama in Varaha Cave, Mahabalipuram

    Trivikrama in Varaha Cave, Mahabalipuram

  • Durga in Varaha Cave, Mahabalipuram

    Durga in Varaha Cave, Mahabalipuram

  • Gaja-Lakshmi in Varaha Cave, Mahabalipuram

    Gaja-Lakshmi in Varaha Cave, Mahabalipuram

  • Narendra Modi–Xi Jinping at Krishna's Butter Ball, Mahabalipuram

    Narendra Modi–Xi Jinping at Krishna's Butter Ball, Mahabalipuram

  • Narendra Modi–Xi Jinping at Arjuna's Penance, Mahabalipuram

    Narendra Modi–Xi Jinping at Arjuna's Penance, Mahabalipuram

External links

References

  1. ↑ Mamallapuram, Encyclopedia Britannica
  2. ↑ Sundaresh, A. S. Gaur, Sila Tripati, K. H. Vora (10 May 2004). "Underwater investigations off Mamallapuram" (PDF). Current Science. 86 (9).
  3. ↑ Mamallapuram, Encyclopedia Britannica
  4. ↑ 'Mahabalipuram' by C. Sivaramamurti, sixth edition, published by the Director General Archaeological Survey Of India, New Delhi, 2004, p.3
  5. ↑ 'Mahabalipuram' by C. Sivaramamurti, sixth edition, published by the Director General Archaeological Survey Of India, New Delhi, 2004, p.4
  6. ↑ Aitihasik Sthanavali by Vijayendra Kumar Mathur, pp.723-725
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